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小屑邪泻懈 褉邪褞. 小芯褑褨邪谢褜薪邪 褨褋褌芯褉褨褟 锌褉褟薪芯褖褨胁, 蟹斜褍写薪懈泻褨胁 褌邪 写褍褉屑邪薪褨胁
袣薪懈卸泻邪 蟹薪邪薪芯谐芯 薪褨屑械褑褜泻芯谐芯 写芯褋谢褨写薪懈泻邪 薪邪褍泻懈 褌邪 泻褍谢褜褌褍褉懈 袙芯谢褜褎覒邪薪覒邪 楔懈胁械谢褜斜褍褕邪 锌褉懈褋胁褟褔械薪邪 薪械 褌邪泻 褨褋褌芯褉褨褩 薪邪泄胁褨写芯屑褨褕懈褏 褨 薪邪泄褍卸懈胁邪薪褨褕懈褏 褋锌械褑褨泄, 褟泻-芯褌 锌械褉械褑褜, 褔邪泄, 泻邪胁邪, 褌褞褌褞薪 褌芯褖芯, 褟泻 褌芯屑褍 胁锌谢懈胁芯胁褨 褑懈褏 蟹邪褋芯斜褨胁 薪邪褋芯谢芯写懈, 褟泻懈泄 胁芯薪懈 褋锌褉邪胁谢褟谢懈 锌褉芯褌褟谐芯屑 胁褨泻褨胁, 锌芯褔懈薪邪褞褔懈 胁褨写 写芯斜懈 小械褉械写薪褜芯胁褨褔褔褟, 薪邪 蟹邪谐邪谢褜薪懈泄 锌芯褋褌褍锌 谢褞写褋褌胁邪, 褌芯屑褍 芯褋芯斜谢懈胁芯屑褍 屑褨褋褑褞, 褟泻械 胁芯薪懈 锌芯褋褨写邪谢懈 胁 泻褍谢褜褌褍褉薪芯屑褍 泄 械泻芯薪芯屑褨褔薪芯屑褍 卸懈褌褌褨 袆胁褉芯锌械泄褋褜泻芯谐芯 泻芯薪褌懈薪械薪褌褍. 袗胁褌芯褉 蟹胁芯写懈褌褜 写芯泻褍锌懈 胁械谢懈褔械蟹薪褍 泻褨谢褜泻褨褋褌褜 褎邪泻褌褨胁, 锌芯写械泻芯谢懈 蟹芯胁褋褨屑 薪械胁褨写芯屑懈褏, 邪斜懈 褉芯蟹谐芯褉薪褍褌懈 褑褨泻邪胁褍 褨褋褌芯褉褨褞 蟹邪胁械蟹械薪懈褏 褨 褋褌胁芯褉械薪懈褏 胁 袆胁褉芯锌褨 芦褉械褔芯胁懈薪 薪邪褋芯谢芯写懈禄, 邪斜懈 锌芯泻谢懈泻邪褌懈 褍 屑邪薪写褉褨胁泻褍 褏屑褨谢褜薪懈屑懈 褋械褉械写薪褜芯胁褨褔薪懈屑懈 褌褉邪锌械蟹薪懈屑懈 蟹邪谢邪屑懈, 锌械褉褕懈屑懈 泻邪胁鈥櫻徰€薪褟屑懈 褔邪褋褨胁 褉械褎芯褉屑邪褑褨褩, 斜褍写褍邪褉邪屑懈 褨褋锌邪薪褋褜泻芯褩 邪褉懈褋褌芯泻褉邪褌褨褩, 写械 褉邪薪泻邪屑懈 褔褍褌懈 蟹邪锌邪褏 谐邪褉褟褔芯谐芯 褕芯泻芯谢邪写褍, 薪褨屑械褑褜泻懈屑懈 褕懈薪泻邪屑懈 褌邪 邪薪谐谢褨泄褋褜泻懈屑懈 写卸懈薪-斜邪褉邪屑懈, 芯锌褨褍屑薪懈屑懈 锌褉懈褌芯薪邪屑懈 褌邪 斜邪谐邪褌褜屑邪 褨薪褕懈屑懈 屑褨褋褑褟屑懈, 写械 谢褞写懈, 蟹斜懈褉邪褞褔懈褋褜, 褍卸懈胁邪谢懈 褑褨 锌褉懈胁邪斜谢懈胁褨 蟹褨谢谢褟 褌邪 褌褉褍薪泻懈.
256 pages, Hardcover
First published January 1, 1980
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June 21, 2021
陌莽indeki resimlerle birlikte konu olduk莽a e臒lenceli anlat谋lm谋艧. Ayr谋ca okurken insan谋n akl谋na birs眉r眉 艧ey geliyor bu ankamda da ufuk a莽谋c谋.
January 3, 2018
褌械泻褋褌 薪械 写褍卸械 褋懈褋褌械屑邪褌懈褔薪懈泄 褨 薪械 蟹芯胁褋褨屑 锌褉芯 褌褍 械锌芯褏褍, 褟泻邪 屑械薪械 褑褨泻邪胁懈褌褜 (谐谢懈斜褕械 蟹邪 褋褨屑薪邪写褑褟褌械 褋褌芯谢褨褌褌褟 褕懈胁械谢褜斜褍褕 蟹邪褏芯写懈褌褜 褏褨斜邪 胁 褉芯蟹写褨谢褨 锌褉芯 锌褉褟薪芯褖褨, 蟹芯胁褋褨屑 泻芯褉芯褌械褋械薪褜泻芯屑褍 泄 蟹邪谐邪谢褜薪懈泻芯胁芯屑褍), 邪谢械 锌褉懈写邪褌薪懈泄 写芯 褌芯谐芯, 褖芯斜 薪邪斜褉邪褌懈 蟹 薪褜芯谐芯 泻褨谢褜泻邪 卸屑械薪褜 褑褨泻邪胁懈薪芯泻 褨 褋锌芯褋褌械褉械卸械薪褜.
胁懈褟胁谢褟褦褌褜褋褟, 泻邪胁褍, 褟泻邪 褖芯泄薪芯 锌褉懈泄褕谢邪 薪邪 褦胁褉芯锌械泄褋褜泻懈泄 褉懈薪芯泻, 胁胁邪卸邪谢懈 邪褋泻械褌懈褔薪懈屑 薪邪锌芯褦屑: 斜褍谢邪 锌芯褕懈褉械薪邪 写褍屑泻邪 锌褉芯 褌械, 褖芯 胁芯薪邪 薪械 褌褨谢褜泻懈 锌褉芯褟褋薪褞褦 褉芯蟹褍屑 褨 胁懈胁芯写懈褌褜 芯褋芯斜褍 薪邪 薪芯胁懈泄 褉褨胁械薪褜 褌胁械褉械蟹芯褋褌褨, 邪 泄 锌褉懈褌谢褍屑谢褞褦 褋械泻褋褍邪谢褜薪褨褋褌褜, 褨 胁 邪薪谐谢褨褩 斜芯谐芯锌芯褋胁褟褔械薪懈屑 芯褋芯斜邪屑 泻邪胁褍 写褍卸械 褉邪写懈谢懈. (写芯胁械谢芯褋褟 锌芯褕褍泻邪褌懈 锌褉芯 褑械谢褨斜邪褌 胁 邪薪谐谢褨泻邪薪褋褜泻褨泄 褑械褉泻胁褨: 胁懈褟胁谢褟褦褌褜褋褟, 蟹 褋械褉械写懈薪懈 褕褨褋褌薪邪写褑褟褌芯谐芯 褋褌芯谢褨褌褌褟 写谢褟 锌邪褉邪褎褨褟谢褜薪懈褏 褋胁褟褖械薪懈泻褨胁 胁褨薪 褍卸械 薪械 斜褍胁 芯斜芯胁'褟蟹泻芯胁懈泄, 邪谢械 写芯褋褨 褦 芯泻褉械屑褨 蟹谐褉芯屑邪写卸械薪薪褟, 褔芯谢芯胁褨褔褨 泄 卸褨薪芯褔褨, 褟泻褨 褌邪泻懈 写邪褞褌褜 芯斜褨褌 褔懈褋褌芯褌懈). 褑褨泻邪胁芯, 褖芯 胁 泻邪褌芯谢懈褑褜泻懈褏 褨褋锌邪薪褨褩 泄 褨褌邪谢褨褩, 写械 褋邪屑械 胁懈褉褍胁邪谢芯 斜邪褉芯泻芯, 蟹 泻邪胁芯褞 薪械 蟹邪屑芯褉芯褔褍胁邪谢懈褋褟, 邪 锌懈谢懈 褕芯泻芯谢邪写, 褟泻芯屑褍, 薪邪胁锌邪泻懈, 锌褉懈锌懈褋褍胁邪谢懈 蟹斜褍写谢懈胁褨 胁谢邪褋褌懈胁芯褋褌褨. 薪邪褋芯谢芯写卸褍胁邪褌懈褋褟 薪懈屑 写褍褏芯胁械薪褋褌胁褍 锌芯胁褋褞写薪懈泄 褑械谢褨斜邪褌, 胁芯褔械胁懈写褜, 薪械 蟹邪胁邪卸邪胁.
锌褉芯 蟹邪薪械锌邪写 褕芯泻芯谢邪写褍 褕懈胁械谢褜斜褍褕 褨褖械 褉芯蟹锌芯胁褨写邪褦, 邪 芯褌 锌褉芯 褌械, 褟泻 褨褌邪谢褨褟 褋褌邪褦 泻褍谢褜褌芯胁懈屑 泻邪胁芯胁懈屑 屑褨褋褑械屑, 鈥� 薪褨. 邪 褕泻芯写邪. 屑邪斜褍褌褜, 褑械泄 褕屑邪褌芯泻 褨褋褌芯褉褨褩 胁卸械 薪械 薪邪谢械卸邪胁 写芯 械锌芯褏懈, 褟泻邪 褑褨泻邪胁懈谢邪 泄芯谐芯.
胁懈褟胁谢褟褦褌褜褋褟, 泻邪胁褍, 褟泻邪 褖芯泄薪芯 锌褉懈泄褕谢邪 薪邪 褦胁褉芯锌械泄褋褜泻懈泄 褉懈薪芯泻, 胁胁邪卸邪谢懈 邪褋泻械褌懈褔薪懈屑 薪邪锌芯褦屑: 斜褍谢邪 锌芯褕懈褉械薪邪 写褍屑泻邪 锌褉芯 褌械, 褖芯 胁芯薪邪 薪械 褌褨谢褜泻懈 锌褉芯褟褋薪褞褦 褉芯蟹褍屑 褨 胁懈胁芯写懈褌褜 芯褋芯斜褍 薪邪 薪芯胁懈泄 褉褨胁械薪褜 褌胁械褉械蟹芯褋褌褨, 邪 泄 锌褉懈褌谢褍屑谢褞褦 褋械泻褋褍邪谢褜薪褨褋褌褜, 褨 胁 邪薪谐谢褨褩 斜芯谐芯锌芯褋胁褟褔械薪懈屑 芯褋芯斜邪屑 泻邪胁褍 写褍卸械 褉邪写懈谢懈. (写芯胁械谢芯褋褟 锌芯褕褍泻邪褌懈 锌褉芯 褑械谢褨斜邪褌 胁 邪薪谐谢褨泻邪薪褋褜泻褨泄 褑械褉泻胁褨: 胁懈褟胁谢褟褦褌褜褋褟, 蟹 褋械褉械写懈薪懈 褕褨褋褌薪邪写褑褟褌芯谐芯 褋褌芯谢褨褌褌褟 写谢褟 锌邪褉邪褎褨褟谢褜薪懈褏 褋胁褟褖械薪懈泻褨胁 胁褨薪 褍卸械 薪械 斜褍胁 芯斜芯胁'褟蟹泻芯胁懈泄, 邪谢械 写芯褋褨 褦 芯泻褉械屑褨 蟹谐褉芯屑邪写卸械薪薪褟, 褔芯谢芯胁褨褔褨 泄 卸褨薪芯褔褨, 褟泻褨 褌邪泻懈 写邪褞褌褜 芯斜褨褌 褔懈褋褌芯褌懈). 褑褨泻邪胁芯, 褖芯 胁 泻邪褌芯谢懈褑褜泻懈褏 褨褋锌邪薪褨褩 泄 褨褌邪谢褨褩, 写械 褋邪屑械 胁懈褉褍胁邪谢芯 斜邪褉芯泻芯, 蟹 泻邪胁芯褞 薪械 蟹邪屑芯褉芯褔褍胁邪谢懈褋褟, 邪 锌懈谢懈 褕芯泻芯谢邪写, 褟泻芯屑褍, 薪邪胁锌邪泻懈, 锌褉懈锌懈褋褍胁邪谢懈 蟹斜褍写谢懈胁褨 胁谢邪褋褌懈胁芯褋褌褨. 薪邪褋芯谢芯写卸褍胁邪褌懈褋褟 薪懈屑 写褍褏芯胁械薪褋褌胁褍 锌芯胁褋褞写薪懈泄 褑械谢褨斜邪褌, 胁芯褔械胁懈写褜, 薪械 蟹邪胁邪卸邪胁.
锌褉芯 蟹邪薪械锌邪写 褕芯泻芯谢邪写褍 褕懈胁械谢褜斜褍褕 褨褖械 褉芯蟹锌芯胁褨写邪褦, 邪 芯褌 锌褉芯 褌械, 褟泻 褨褌邪谢褨褟 褋褌邪褦 泻褍谢褜褌芯胁懈屑 泻邪胁芯胁懈屑 屑褨褋褑械屑, 鈥� 薪褨. 邪 褕泻芯写邪. 屑邪斜褍褌褜, 褑械泄 褕屑邪褌芯泻 褨褋褌芯褉褨褩 胁卸械 薪械 薪邪谢械卸邪胁 写芯 械锌芯褏懈, 褟泻邪 褑褨泻邪胁懈谢邪 泄芯谐芯.
April 30, 2018
袣褉褍褌械蟹薪芯. 笑懈褌邪褌懈 蟹 褌褉邪泻褌邪褌褨胁 胁褨写锌芯胁褨写薪懈褏 械锌芯褏, 锌邪褉邪谢械谢褨 泄 邪薪邪谢芯谐褨褩 褨, 蟹胁褨褋薪芯, 邪胁褌芯褉褋褜泻褨 胁懈褋薪芯胁泻懈 鈥� 薪邪锌褉芯褔褍写 褋胁褨卸邪 薪芯褌邪 胁 屑芯褦屑褍 蟹胁懈褔薪芯屑褍 褔懈褌邪薪薪褨. 笑械 褋邪屑械 褌邪 褨褋褌芯褉褨褟, 褟泻邪 薪邪褋锌褉邪胁写褨 褑褨泻邪胁邪: 薪械 褏褉芯薪芯锌懈褋 斜褨泄芯泻 屑褨卸 蟹邪蟹薪邪泄泻褍胁邪褌懈屑懈 屑芯薪邪褉褏邪屑懈, 邪 褉芯蟹胁懈褌芯泻 褍褟胁谢械薪褜 褍 褋褍褋锌褨谢褜褋褌胁褨, 褉芯蟹胁懈褌芯泻 胁蟹邪褦屑芯蟹邪谢械卸薪芯褋褌褨 斜邪褔械薪薪褟 薪邪褋芯谢芯写 泄 褨薪写褍褋褌褉褨邪谢褜薪芯谐芯 锌褉芯谐褉械褋褍.
袩芯斜褨卸薪邪 蟹谐邪写泻邪 锌褉芯 袧褨褑褕械 褨 泄芯谐芯 褌褉邪泻褌褍胁邪薪薪褟 胁写褟褔薪芯褋褌褨 (褍 泻芯薪褌械泻褋褌褨 泻褍谢褜褌褍褉懈 胁懈褋褌邪胁谢褟薪薪褟 锌懈褌胁邪 胁 褌芯胁邪褉懈褋褌胁褨) 鈥� 褨 芯褋褜 褍 屑械薪褨 胁卸械 蟹薪芯胁褍 胁褨写褉芯写懈谢芯褋褟 褞薪邪褑褜泻械 斜邪卸邪薪薪褟 锌械褉械褔懈褌邪褌懈 袧褨褑褕械 胁褋褜芯谐芯, 褏邪泄 褟泻 褑械 褋泻谢邪写薪芯.
携 斜 褉邪写懈谢邪 锌芯褔懈褌邪褌懈 褑褞 泻薪懈卸泻褍 褌懈屑, 薪邪 泻芯谐芯 褌懈褋薪褍褌褜 蟹斜芯泻褍 芦薪械 锌懈泄禄, 芦泻懈薪褜 泻褍褉懈褌懈禄. 袧械 褌芯屑褍, 褖芯 褑械 芯写薪芯蟹薪邪褔薪芯 蟹屑褨褑薪懈褌褜 褩褏薪褨 锌芯蟹懈褑褨褩, 邪 锌褉芯褋褌芯 写谢褟 褉芯蟹褍屑褨薪薪褟 褋芯褑褨邪谢褜薪芯谐芯 泻芯薪褌械泻褋褌褍 胁卸懈胁邪薪薪褟 邪斜芯 薪械 胁卸懈胁邪薪薪褟 "蟹邪褋芯斜褨胁 薪邪褋芯谢芯写懈", 褟泻 褩褏 薪邪蟹懈胁邪褞褌褜 褍 褌械泻褋褌褨. 袘邪褔懈褌懈, 褟泻 褌械, 褖芯 褌懈 胁胁邪卸邪褦褕 褋胁芯褦褞 芯褋芯斜懈褋褌芯褞 褋锌褉邪胁芯褞, 胁械谢懈泻芯褞 屑褨褉芯褞 褦 薪邪褋谢褨写泻芯屑 褉褨褕械薪褜 褋褍褋锌褨谢褜褋褌胁邪, 屑芯卸械 薪械 胁械谢褜屑懈 锌褉懈褦屑薪芯 (褌械卸 屑邪谢邪 泻褨谢褜泻邪 褌邪泻懈褏 屑芯屑械薪褌褨胁 锌褨写 褔邪褋 褔懈褌邪薪薪褟), 邪谢械, 写褍屑邪褞, 泻芯褉懈褋薪芯.
袩芯斜褨卸薪邪 蟹谐邪写泻邪 锌褉芯 袧褨褑褕械 褨 泄芯谐芯 褌褉邪泻褌褍胁邪薪薪褟 胁写褟褔薪芯褋褌褨 (褍 泻芯薪褌械泻褋褌褨 泻褍谢褜褌褍褉懈 胁懈褋褌邪胁谢褟薪薪褟 锌懈褌胁邪 胁 褌芯胁邪褉懈褋褌胁褨) 鈥� 褨 芯褋褜 褍 屑械薪褨 胁卸械 蟹薪芯胁褍 胁褨写褉芯写懈谢芯褋褟 褞薪邪褑褜泻械 斜邪卸邪薪薪褟 锌械褉械褔懈褌邪褌懈 袧褨褑褕械 胁褋褜芯谐芯, 褏邪泄 褟泻 褑械 褋泻谢邪写薪芯.
携 斜 褉邪写懈谢邪 锌芯褔懈褌邪褌懈 褑褞 泻薪懈卸泻褍 褌懈屑, 薪邪 泻芯谐芯 褌懈褋薪褍褌褜 蟹斜芯泻褍 芦薪械 锌懈泄禄, 芦泻懈薪褜 泻褍褉懈褌懈禄. 袧械 褌芯屑褍, 褖芯 褑械 芯写薪芯蟹薪邪褔薪芯 蟹屑褨褑薪懈褌褜 褩褏薪褨 锌芯蟹懈褑褨褩, 邪 锌褉芯褋褌芯 写谢褟 褉芯蟹褍屑褨薪薪褟 褋芯褑褨邪谢褜薪芯谐芯 泻芯薪褌械泻褋褌褍 胁卸懈胁邪薪薪褟 邪斜芯 薪械 胁卸懈胁邪薪薪褟 "蟹邪褋芯斜褨胁 薪邪褋芯谢芯写懈", 褟泻 褩褏 薪邪蟹懈胁邪褞褌褜 褍 褌械泻褋褌褨. 袘邪褔懈褌懈, 褟泻 褌械, 褖芯 褌懈 胁胁邪卸邪褦褕 褋胁芯褦褞 芯褋芯斜懈褋褌芯褞 褋锌褉邪胁芯褞, 胁械谢懈泻芯褞 屑褨褉芯褞 褦 薪邪褋谢褨写泻芯屑 褉褨褕械薪褜 褋褍褋锌褨谢褜褋褌胁邪, 屑芯卸械 薪械 胁械谢褜屑懈 锌褉懈褦屑薪芯 (褌械卸 屑邪谢邪 泻褨谢褜泻邪 褌邪泻懈褏 屑芯屑械薪褌褨胁 锌褨写 褔邪褋 褔懈褌邪薪薪褟), 邪谢械, 写褍屑邪褞, 泻芯褉懈褋薪芯.
December 15, 2020
啸芯褉芯褕邪, 邪谢械 薪械 薪邪褋褌褨谢褜泻懈, 褟泻 褟 褋锌芯写褨胁邪谢邪褋褟. 袦械薪褨 褏芯褌褨谢芯褋褟 斜褨谢褜褕械, 谐谢懈斜褕械, 写械褌邪谢褜薪褨褕械. 携 锌芯褔褍胁邪褞 褋械斜械 芯斜写褍褉械薪芯褞 褔械褉械蟹 褌械, 褖芯 写芯斜褉褍 锌芯谢芯胁懈薪褍 褋褌芯褉褨薪芯泻 蟹邪泄屑邪褞褌褜 褨谢褞褋褌褉邪褑褨褩, 邪 褟泻褖芯 胁褨写泻懈薪褍褌懈 斜褨斜谢褨芯谐褉邪褎褨褞, 锌芯泻邪卸褔懈泻 褨屑械薪 褨 胁褋褌褍锌 褟泻芯谐芯褋褜 写褟写褜泻邪, 褌芯 褋邪屑芯谐芯 褌械泻褋褌褍 谢械写褜 薪邪蟹斜懈褉邪褦褌褜褋褟 褋褌芯褉褨薪芯泻 薪邪 100. 些械 写芯 芯写薪褨褦褩 锌褉懈褔懈薪懈 褉芯蟹褔邪褉褍胁邪薪薪褟 屑懈屑芯胁芯谢褨 褋锌褉懈褔懈薪懈胁褋褟 锌邪薪 袩褉芯褏邪褋褜泻芯, 褟泻懈泄 褍 锌褨写蟹邪谐芯谢芯胁泻褍 锌械褉械泻谢邪胁 薪褨屑械褑褜泻械 Genu脽mittel 芯写褉邪蟹褍 褌褉褜芯屑邪 褋谢芯胁邪屑: 锌褉褟薪芯褖褨, 蟹斜褍写薪懈泻懈, 写褍褉屑邪薪懈. 携 泻褍锌懈谢邪 泻薪懈卸泻褍, 褖芯斜 锌褉芯褔懈褌邪褌懈 锌褉芯 褨褋褌芯褉褨褞 锌褉褟薪芯褖褨胁, 邪 褉芯蟹写褨谢 锌褉芯 薪懈褏 蟹邪泄屑邪褦 邪卸 14 褋褌芯褉褨薪芯泻.
January 18, 2025
袣谢邪褋懈泻邪, 褟泻褍 写邪胁薪芯 蟹斜懈褉邪谢邪褋褟 锌褉芯褔懈褌邪褌懈. 袛芯蟹胁芯谢褟褦 褋褌胁芯褉懈褌懈 胁 谐芯谢芯胁褨 褕懈褉褕褍 泻邪褉褌懈薪泻褍, 褔芯屑褍 胁褨写斜褍胁邪谢懈褋褟 褌褨 褔懈 褨薪褕褨 锌褉芯褑械褋懈. 袛褍卸械 褑褨泻邪胁褨 褨谢褞褋褌褉邪褑褨褩 锌械褉械胁邪卸薪芯 蟹 17-19 褋褌. 袛械褟泻褨 褑懈褌邪褌懈 写芯胁械谢芯褋褟 锌芯胁懈锌懈褋褍胁邪褌懈, 邪 褋邪屑褍 泻薪懈卸泻褍 胁褋褍褑褨谢褜 褉芯蟹谐褉邪褎懈褌懈 芯谢褨胁褑械屑. 袩械褉械泻谢邪写 褨 褉械写邪泻褌褍褉邪 褍 胁邪褉褨邪薪褌褨 "袣褉懈褌懈泻懈" 2007 褉芯泻褍 - 褨写械邪谢褜薪褨, 邪谢械 薪械 锌芯谢褨谐褉邪褎褨褟 (锌褉芯泻谢械泄泻邪 斜械蟹 锌褉芯褕懈胁泻懈 - 褎褍).
January 7, 2019
Did you know that aristocrats used to pour their coffees on a little plate before drinking it? And that there were a long list of etiquette rules if you wanted to hand somebody a snuff-box?
Fun, well written, full of trivia. I read it for one of my University lessons, but I would read it again!
Fun, well written, full of trivia. I read it for one of my University lessons, but I would read it again!
April 30, 2012
Spice and stimulants must flow: 鈥渢he great voyages of exploration, the discovery of the New World, the beginning of the modern age, were all closely linked to the European hunger for pepper.鈥� The 鈥渨ine of Islam,鈥� coffee, 鈥渁wakened a drowsing humanity from its alcoholic stupor to middle-class common sense and industry.鈥� Coffeehouses became places of commerce, news and conversation for bourgeois life. While the Protestant Ethic was being lubricated by coffee, fasting monks and the aristocracy of the Catholic world took their liquid cocoa leisurely lying down. Smoking or 鈥渄rinking tobacco鈥� was condemned as the 鈥渄ry drunkenness,鈥� a 鈥渇eeling of activity in leisure and one of leisure in the midst of activity鈥� and 鈥渁n ersatz act which absorbs the increasing nervousness of civilized man.鈥� Socialists debated the scourge of the new industrial sped-up 鈥渟pirits鈥� versus solidarity-creating beer-drinking in taverns. While Europe sped up with its stimulants, opium rendered China docile to colonialism.
October 26, 2015
the research is here is solid, and this book is jam-packed with cool historical images of the stimulants and intoxicants described. But the great interest of this book lies in the more broad-reaching comments the author provides on the changing roles drugs play within a range of European cultures over time. These can be quite thought-provoking and insightful such as the contrast Schivelbusch provides between the place of coffee as a Protestant drug and chocolate as a Catholic drug. The connection between Protestantism and coffee is nothing really new, and not very radical to make, but the contrast the author establishes between coffee and the role of chocolate in Catholic cultures was, at least for me, a new perspective that i found quite interesting to entertain. One good example of the importance of chocolate for Catholic countries lies in the nutritional richness that chocolate provides whilst still being consumed as a liquid. As such it allowed Catholic communities to imbibe without breaking their religiously ordained fasting periods, such as Lent. Fascinating.
February 17, 2021
孝褉芯褏懈 褋褌懈褋谢邪, 邪谢械 写褍卸械 褑褨泻邪胁邪 褨褋褌芯褉褨褟 锌褉芯 屑邪谢械薪褜泻褨 泄 胁械谢懈泻褨 薪邪褉泻芯褌懈泻懈: 锌褉褟薪芯褖褨, 褔邪泄, 泻邪胁褍, 褌褞褌褞薪, 芯锌褨褍屑 褌邪 谐邪褕懈褕. 袩褉芯写褍泻褌懈, 褟泻褨 薪械 泻芯薪褔械 锌芯褌褉褨斜薪褨 泄 写邪谢械泻芯 薪械 蟹邪胁卸写懈 褌邪 薪械 胁褋褞写懈 褨褋褌芯褉懈褔薪芯 胁卸懈胁邪谢懈褋褟. 孝邪 蟹 械泻褋锌邪薪褋褨褦褞 泻芯谢芯薪褨邪谢褜薪懈褏 泻褉邪褩薪 蟹'褟胁懈谢懈褋褟 褋锌芯褔邪褌泻褍 褟泻 薪芯胁褨 褑褨泻邪胁懈薪泻懈, 邪 锌芯褌褨屑 泄 褍 褖芯写械薪薪芯屑褍 锌芯斜褍褌褨 谢褞写械泄.
效芯屑褍 褑褨泻邪胁芯? 袗胁褌芯褉 褉芯蟹锌芯胁褨写邪褦 锌褉芯 褌械, 褟泻褨 褑褨 锌褉芯写褍泻褌懈 蟹屑褨薪褞胁邪谢懈 卸懈褌褌褟 褌邪 褋芯褑褨邪谢褜薪懈泄 褌褉懈斜 褍 褉褨蟹薪懈褏 褦胁褉芯锌械泄褋褜泻懈褏 泻褉邪褩薪邪褏. 袨褌 薪邪 锌褉懈泻谢邪写, 写芯 锌芯褟胁懈 泻邪胁懈, 褦胁褉芯锌械泄褑褨 胁卸懈胁邪谢懈 胁械谢懈褔械蟹薪褍 泻褨谢褜泻褨褋褌褜 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褞. 些芯写薪褟 胁褨写 屑邪谢芯谐芯 写芯 胁械谢懈泻芯谐芯 胁懈锌懈胁邪谢懈 写芯 3 谢褨褌褉褨胁 锌懈胁邪, 写褍卸械 锌芯锌褍谢褟褉薪懈屑 斜褍胁 锌懈胁薪懈泄 褋褍锌. 校褟胁懈谢懈?
袧邪锌械胁薪械 薪邪泄褑褨泻邪胁褨褕械 斜褍谢芯 褔懈褌邪褌懈 锌褉芯 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褜 褌邪 锌芯胁械写褨薪泻芯胁褨 锌邪褌械褉薪懈, 褟泻褨 胁褨薪 褎芯褉屑褍褦. 袩褉芯 褕懈薪泻胁邪褋懈, 褌邪 写械 胁芯薪懈 锌褉懈卸懈谢懈褋褟. 袙懈褟胁谢褟褦褌褜褋褟 褌褉邪写懈褑褨褩 锌懈褌褌褟 褍 泻芯褉褔屑褨 写褍卸械 胁褨写褉褨蟹薪褟谢懈褋褟 褍 袘褉懈褌邪薪褨褩 蟹 袗屑械褉懈泻芯褞 褌邪 袧褨屑械褔褔懈薪褨. 袦械薪褨 薪邪泄褑褨泻邪胁褨褕械 斜褍谢芯 褔懈褌邪褌懈 锌褉芯 褋芯褑褨邪谢褜薪褍 褉芯谢褜 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褞. 袧邪锌褉懈泻谢邪写, 褉懈褌褍邪谢 锌懈褌懈 "蟹邪 蟹写芯褉芯胁'褟" (锌懈褌懈 写芯 泻芯谐芯褋褜) 屑邪褦 写邪胁薪褦 锌芯褏芯写卸械薪薪褟 (锌褉懈薪邪泄屑薪褨 蟹 褔邪褋褨胁 褋褌邪褉芯写邪胁薪褜芯褩 袚褉械褑褨褩) 褨 芯蟹薪邪褔邪褦 胁懈蟹薪邪薪薪褟 胁蟹邪褦屑薪芯褩 锌褉懈褏懈谢褜薪芯褋褌褨 褌邪 写褉褍卸斜懈. 孝械, 褖芯 褍 褉褨蟹薪懈褏 薪邪褉芯写邪褏 谐芯胁芯褉褟褌褜 锌褉懈 褑褜芯屑褍 褌械卸 屑邪褦 胁邪卸谢懈胁械 蟹薪邪褔械薪薪褟 褨 褦, 褌邪泻 斜懈 屑芯胁懈褌懈, 褎芯褉屑褍谢邪屑懈, 褟泻褨 褎芯褉屑褍褞褌褜 胁蟹邪褦屑薪褍 写芯胁褨褉褍. 袙芯薪懈 薪邪褔械 蟹邪泻谢褟褌褌褟 芯褋胁褟褔褍褞褌褜 薪邪锌褨泄, 芯蟹薪邪褔邪褞褌褜, 褖芯 薪邪锌褨泄 斜械蟹锌械褔薪懈泄, 薪械 芯褌褉褍褦薪懈泄. 些械 褍 XVI 褋褌. 泻芯卸薪械 蟹邪褋褌褨谢谢褟 蟹邪泻褨薪褔褍胁邪谢芯褋褟 褌芯褌邪谢褜薪懈屑 褋锌'褟薪褨薪薪褟屑 褍褋褨褏 谐芯褋褌械泄, 褨 斜褍褌懈 褌胁械褉械蟹懈屑 薪邪 褌邪泻芯屑褍 写褨泄褋褌胁褨 斜褍谢芯 薪械褔褍胁邪薪芯褞 薪械锌芯胁邪谐芯褞.
袣薪邪泄锌褍 屑芯卸薪邪 胁胁邪卸邪褌懈 褉械蟹械褉胁邪褌芯屑, 写械 蟹斜械褉械谐谢懈褋褟 邪褉褏邪褩褔薪褨 蟹胁懈褔邪褩 谢褞写褋褌胁邪. 袛芯 锌褉懈泻谢邪写褍 邪褉褏邪褩褔薪邪 锌褉芯褑械写褍褉邪, 褟泻邪 蟹斜械褉械谐谢邪褋褟 褍 锌懈褌薪懈褏 褉懈褌褍邪谢邪褏, 邪薪褌褉芯锌芯谢芯谐懈 薪邪蟹懈胁邪褞褌褜 "锌芯褌谢邪褔" 褨 胁芯薪邪 褋懈屑胁芯谢褨蟹褍褦 卸械褉褌胁褍, 写械 邪写褉械褋邪褌芯屑 褦 薪械 斜芯卸械褋褌胁芯, 邪 褨薪褕褨 谢褞写懈. 袦芯胁邪 褨写械 锌褉芯 褌械, 泻芯谢懈 褏褌芯褋褜 蟹 泻芯屑锌邪薪褨褩 "褋褌邪胁懈褌褜" 薪邪锌芯褩. 袙褨写锌芯胁褨写薪芯 锌芯褌褨屑, 蟹谐褨写薪芯 蟹 薪械锌懈褋邪薪懈屑懈 锌褉邪胁懈谢邪屑懈, 褋褌邪胁懈褌懈 屑邪褞褌褜 泄 褨薪褕褨 褍褔邪褋薪懈泻懈 泻芯屑锌邪薪褨褩 锌芯 褔械褉蟹褨. 孝褍褌 写谢褟 锌芯褉褨胁薪褟薪薪褟 屑芯卸薪邪 蟹谐邪写邪褌懈 胁芯卸写褨胁 锌谢械屑械薪, 褟泻褨 芯斜写邪褉芯胁褍胁邪谢懈 芯写懈薪 芯写薪芯谐芯, 褨 褖芯斜 薪械 蟹谐邪薪褜斜懈褌懈褋褟, 锌芯褌褉褨斜薪芯 斜褍谢芯 斜褍褌懈 褉褨胁薪懈屑 褍 写邪褉褍胁邪薪薪褟褏. 袗斜芯 卸 蟹谐邪写邪泄褌械 小芯谢芯屑芯薪邪 褌邪 褑邪褉懈褑褞 褋邪胁褋褜泻褍.
"校褔邪褋薪懈泻懈 锌懈褌薪芯谐芯 泻芯谢邪 - 褑械 褍褔邪褋薪懈泻懈 锌芯褌谢邪褔褍. 袟 褨薪褋褌懈薪泻褌懈胁薪芯褞 薪械锌芯屑懈谢褜薪褨褋褌褞 锌械褉械谢褨褌薪懈褏 锌褌邪褏褨胁 胁芯薪懈 胁褨写褌胁芯褉褞褞褌褜 锌褉邪胁懈谢邪 泄 褉懈褌褍邪谢懈 锌褉芯锌芯薪褍胁邪薪薪褟 褌邪 胁褨写写褟褔褍胁邪薪薪褟, 锌褉芯 锌芯褏芯写卸械薪薪褟 褟泻懈褏 薪械 屑邪褞褌褜 卸芯写薪芯谐芯 褍褟胁谢械薪薪褟. 校 褑褜芯屑褍 褩屑 写芯锌芯屑邪谐邪褦 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褜, 写芯胁泻芯谢邪 褟泻芯谐芯 胁褋械, 蟹褉械褕褌芯褞, 泄 芯斜械褉褌邪褦褌褜褋褟. 胁褨薪 蟹屑懈胁邪褦 薪芯胁褨褕褨 褑懈胁褨谢褨蟹芯胁邪薪褨 胁械褉褋褌胁懈 褋胁褨写芯屑芯褋褌褨, 胁褨写泻褉懈胁邪褞褔懈 写芯褋褌褍锌 写芯 褌芯谐芯 邪褉褏邪褩褔薪芯谐芯 褕邪褉褍, 写械 褋褌邪薪懈 褋锌'褟薪褨薪薪褟, 蟹斜褉邪褌邪薪薪褟 褨 蟹屑邪谐邪薪薪褟 蟹 褌邪泻芯褞 褋邪屑芯芯褔械胁懈写薪褨褋褌褞 锌械褉械褏芯写褟褌褜 芯写懈薪 胁 芯写薪芯谐芯, 褟泻 褨 薪邪 斜械薪泻械褌邪褏 锌'褟褌褋芯褌, 褌懈锟斤拷褟褔褍 褔懈 褌褉懈 褌懈褋褟褔褨 褉芯泻褨胁 褌芯屑褍"
"袩懈褌懈 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褜 - 胁褨写写邪胁薪邪 芯蟹薪邪褔邪褦 胁懈褌胁芯褉褞胁邪褌懈 褋锌褨谢褜薪芯褌褍. 袧邪泄写邪胁薪褨褕褨 锌懈褌薪褨 褉懈褌褍邪谢懈 - 褑械 写械屑芯薪褋褌褉邪褑褨褟 锌芯胁'褟蟹邪薪芯褋褌褨 屑褨卸 锌懈褌褑褟屑懈"
孝邪泻芯卸 褌褍褌 芯锌懈褋邪薪邪 褨褋褌芯褉褨褟 胁懈写芯蟹屑褨薪懈 蟹邪褩蟹写褍 褌邪 泻芯褉褔屑懈 褍 谐芯褌械谢褨 褌邪 褕懈薪泻胁邪褋懈.
"袨褔械胁懈写薪芯, 褎褨蟹懈褔薪邪 斜谢懈蟹褜泻褨褋褌褜 褕懈薪泻胁邪褋褍 芯卸懈胁谢褟褦 邪褌邪胁褨褋褌懈褔薪懈泄 褋锌芯谐邪写 锌褉芯 褉芯谢褜 谐芯褋锌芯写邪褉褟 褟泻 芯褋芯斜懈, 褖芯 胁谢邪褕褌芯胁褍褦 谐芯褋褌懈薪褍".
"孝邪 芯斜褋褌邪胁懈薪邪, 褖芯 胁褨写 锌芯褔邪褌泻褍 XIX 褋褌. 邪薪谐谢芯-邪屑械褉懈泻邪薪褋褜泻邪 泻薪邪泄锌邪 蟹胁械褌褜褋褟 泻芯褉芯褌泻芯 "斜邪褉", 蟹薪邪褏芯写懈褌褜 锌褉芯褋褌械 锌芯褟褋薪械薪薪褟 胁 褌芯屑褍, 褖芯 褕懈薪泻胁邪褋 (斜邪褉) 褨 泻薪邪泄锌邪 蟹谢懈谢懈褋褟, 褋褌邪谢懈 褨写械薪褌懈褔薪懈屑懈. 袧邪 褦胁褉芯锌械泄褋褜泻芯屑褍 泻芯薪褌懈薪械薪褌褨, 邪 薪邪写褌芯 胁 袧褨屑械褔褔懈薪褨, 斜邪褉, 褌芯斜褌芯 褕懈薪泻胁邪褋, 褌邪泻 薪褨泻芯谢懈 泄 薪械 蟹写芯斜褍胁褋褟 薪邪 褌邪泻械 写芯屑褨薪邪薪褌薪械 蟹薪邪褔械薪薪褟. 校 锌芯褉褨胁薪褟薪薪褨 蟹 锌褉芯写芯胁谐褍胁邪褌懈屑 邪屑械褉懈泻邪薪褋褜泻懈屑 斜邪褉芯屑, 褕懈薪泻胁邪褋 褍 薪褨屑械褑褜泻懈褏 泻薪邪泄锌邪褏 胁懈谐谢褟写邪褦 泻芯褉芯褌泻懈屑 芯斜褉褍斜泻芯屑. 袙 袗薪谐谢褨褩 褌邪 小楔袗 褑褨谢泻芯屑 薪芯褉屑邪谢褜薪芯 锌懈褌懈 锌褉懈 褕懈薪泻胁邪褋褨, 薪邪褌芯屑褨褋褌褜 褍 薪褨屑械褑褜泻褨泄 泻薪邪泄锌芯胁褨泄 泻褍谢褜褌褍褉褨, 蟹谐褨写薪芯 蟹 薪械锌懈褋邪薪懈屑懈 锌褉邪胁懈谢邪屑懈, 褑械 锌褉懈胁褨谢械泄 蟹邪胁褋褨写薪懈泻褨胁"
袩芯褟胁邪 泻邪胁懈, 褟泻邪 屑邪谢邪 锌褉芯褌懈谢械卸薪懈泄 胁锌谢懈胁 薪邪 芯褉谐邪薪褨蟹屑, 斜褍谢邪 褉邪写芯 锌褉懈泄薪褟褌邪 锌褉芯褌械褋褌邪薪褌邪屑懈, 褟泻褨 胁 褌芯泄 褔邪褋 邪泻褌懈胁薪芯 胁锌谢懈胁邪谢懈 薪邪 褉芯蟹胁懈褌芯泻 械泻芯薪芯屑褨泻懈. 小锌芯褔邪褌泻褍 泻邪胁褍 锌芯写邪胁邪谢懈 褍 胁邪蟹邪褏 褌邪 谐谢械褔懈泻邪褏 写谢褟 锌懈胁邪 褔懈 褋懈写褉褍, 褟泻褨 斜褍谢懈 胁 泻芯卸薪芯屑褍 写芯屑褨. 袩芯褋褌褍锌芯胁芯 锌懈褌褌褟 泻邪胁懈 褋褌邪谢芯 褉懈褌褍邪谢褨蟹芯胁邪薪懈屑, 蟹'褟胁懈谢懈褋褟 褋锌械褑褨邪谢褜薪褨 邪褌褉懈斜褍褌懈 褌邪 蟹胁懈褔邪褩 褟泻 褩褩 锌褉邪胁懈谢褜薪芯 锌懈褌懈.
笑褨泻邪胁芯, 褖芯 袗薪谐谢褨褟 斜褍谢邪 胁械谢懈泻懈屑 锌芯褋褌邪褔邪谢褜薪懈泻芯屑 泻邪胁懈, 褨 褋邪屑械 褌邪屑 薪邪泄褕胁懈写褕械 褉芯蟹锌芯胁褋褞写懈谢邪褋褟 泻褍谢褜褌褍褉邪 锌懈褌褌褟 泻邪胁懈. 袘褉懈褌邪薪褨褟 斜褍谢邪 泻邪胁芯胁芯褞 泻褉邪褩薪芯褞, 邪 褔邪泄 锌褉懈泄褕芯胁 蟹谐芯写芯屑.
"袣邪胁邪 褨 褔邪泄 胁懈褟胁谢褟褞褌褜褋褟 锌褉懈褉芯写卸械薪懈屑懈 屑褨褖邪薪褋褜泻懈屑懈 薪邪锌芯褟屑懈 斜芯写邪泄 褍 褌芯屑褍, 褖芯 胁芯薪懈 褑褨谢泻芯屑 械屑邪薪褋懈锌芯胁邪薪褨 胁褨写 斜褍写褜-褟泻芯谐芯 邪褉褏邪褩褔薪芯谐芯 蟹薪邪褔械薪薪褟 锌懈褌褌褟. 袣邪胁芯褞 褔懈 褔邪褦屑 薪械 褑芯泻邪褞褌褜褋褟, 薪懈屑懈 薪械 锌'褦屑芯 写芯 泻芯谐芯褋褜, 褌褍褌 薪褨褏褌芯 薪械 蟹屑邪谐邪褦褌褜褋褟 褍 胁懈褋褌邪胁谢褟薪薪褨. 小锌芯卸懈胁邪褔褨 泻邪胁懈 褌邪 褔邪褞 褦 薪械 胁薪褍褌褉褨褕薪褜芯 锌芯胁'褟蟹邪薪芯褞 褋锌褨谢褜薪芯褌芯褞, 邪 蟹褨斜褉邪薪薪褟屑 薪邪谐芯谢芯褕械薪懈褏 褨薪写懈胁褨写褍邪谢褨褋褌褨胁."
袧邪 褌褉邪写懈褑褨褩 锌懈褌褌褟 锌懈胁邪 褌邪 胁懈薪邪 写褍卸械 锌芯胁锌谢懈胁邪谢芯 锌芯褕懈褉械薪薪褟 谐芯褉褨谢泻懈. 袦邪泻褋懈屑邪谢褜薪懈泄 械褎械泻褌 褋锌'褟薪褨薪薪褟, 写械褕械胁邪 褑褨薪邪, 蟹褉芯斜懈谢懈 谐芯褉褨谢泻褍 写懈褌褟屑 锌褉芯屑懈褋谢芯胁芯褩 褉械胁芯谢褞褑褨褩 薪邪褉褨胁薪褨 蟹 褌泻邪褑褜泻懈屑 胁械褉褋褌邪褌芯屑. 袙芯薪邪 斜邪谐邪褌芯 褖芯 蟹屑褨薪懈谢邪 褍 褋褍褋锌褨谢褜褋褌胁褨. 袟屑褨薪懈谢邪 泄 泻褍谢褜褌褍褉褍 锌懈褌褌褟. 小邪屑械 胁 锌褉芯屑懈褋谢芯胁褨泄 袆胁褉芯锌褨 褌邪 袗屑械褉懈褑褨 褉邪蟹芯屑 蟹 谐芯褉褨谢泻芯褞 蟹'褟胁懈谢邪褋褟 褌褉邪写懈褑褨褟 锌懈褌懈 薪邪芯写懈薪褑褨. 袪邪薪褨褕械 褉芯蟹锌懈胁邪薪薪褟 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褜薪懈褏 薪邪锌芯褩胁 斜褍谢懈 褋褍褌芯 泻芯谢械泻褌懈胁薪懈屑懈.
袣褍谢褜褌褍褉邪 锌懈褌褌褟 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褞 褌邪 泻邪胁懈 锌芯褋褨写邪谢懈 胁邪卸谢懈胁械 屑褨褋褑械 写谢褟 褋芯褑褨邪谢褨蟹邪褑褨褩. 校 啸VII-XVIII 褋褌. 泻邪胁邪褉薪褟 写谢褟 屑褨褖邪薪褋褌胁邪 斜褍谢邪 胁邪卸谢懈胁懈屑 屑褨褋褑械屑 蟹褍褋褌褉褨褔械泄, 写懈褋锌褍褌褨胁 褌邪 胁懈褉褨褕械薪薪褟 褋锌褉邪胁. 孝褍写懈 蟹邪蟹胁懈褔邪泄 薪械 写芯锌褍褋泻邪谢懈褋褟 卸褨薪泻懈, 褨 泻邪胁邪褉薪褨 褨薪芯写褨 锌械褉械褌胁芯褉褞胁邪谢懈褋褜 薪邪胁褨褌褜 薪邪 斜褨蟹薪械褋-芯褋械褉械写泻懈. 校 XIX 褋褌. 锌芯写褨斜薪褍 褎褍薪泻褑褨褞 泻芯褉褔屑邪 锌芯褔邪谢邪 胁褨写褨谐褉邪胁邪褌懈 写谢褟 褉芯斜褨褌薪懈褔芯谐芯 泻谢邪褋褍. 袉 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褜, 褨 泻邪胁邪 褋褌懈屑褍谢褞褞褌褜 锌械胁薪褨 褟泻芯褋褌褨, 褖芯 褩褏 胁褨写锌芯胁褨写薪懈泄 泻谢邪褋 胁胁邪卸邪褦 蟹邪 胁邪卸谢懈胁褨. "携泻 泻邪胁邪 褋褌懈屑褍谢褞褦 褌胁械褉械蟹褨褋褌褜 褌邪 褨薪写懈胁褨写褍邪谢褨蟹屑, 褌邪泻 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褜 褋锌褉懈褟褦 锌褉芯谢械褌邪褉褋褜泻懈屑 褔械褋薪芯褌邪屑 泻芯谢械泻褌懈胁褨蟹屑褍 褨 褋芯谢褨写邪褉薪芯褋褌褨".
孝褞褌褞薪 褌邪泻芯卸 蟹屑褨薪懈胁 斜邪谐邪褌芯 褖芯写械薪薪懈褏 褉懈褌褍邪谢褨胁. 小锌芯褔邪褌泻褍 褑械 斜褍谢邪 褉芯蟹泻褨褕, 锌芯褌褨屑 斜褍写械薪薪褨褋褌褜 褨 蟹 褔邪褋芯屑 写芯胁谐懈泄 锌褉芯褑械褋 褉芯蟹锌邪谢褞胁邪薪薪褟 谢褞谢褜泻懈 蟹邪屑褨薪懈谢懈 褕胁懈写泻褨 褋懈谐邪褉械褌懈.
"袧邪褋芯谢芯写邪 胁褨写 泻褍褉褨薪薪褟 锌芯谢褟谐邪褦 写邪谢械泻芯 薪械 褌褨谢褜泻懈 褍 褎邪褉屑邪泻芯谢芯谐褨褔薪褨泄 写褨褩 薪褨泻芯褌懈薪褍. 袧械 屑械薪褕 胁邪卸谢懈胁懈屑懈 褦 褨 卸械褋褌懈 泻褍褉褑褟. 袩褨写 褑懈屑 芯谐谢褟写芯屑 泻褍褉褨薪薪褟 褌褨褋薪芯 褋锌芯褉褨写薪械薪械 蟹褨 褋锌芯卸懈胁邪薪薪褟屑 谐邪褉褟褔懈褏 薪邪锌芯褩胁. ...褌芯 锌褉懈褦屑薪褨褕械, 褖芯 斜褨谢褜褕械 褉褨蟹薪懈褏 胁邪褉褨邪薪褌褨胁 卸械褋褌褨胁 胁褨写泻褉懈胁邪褦 褑械泄 锌褉械写屑械褌. 袧邪 锌褉懈泻谢邪写褨 褨褋褌芯褉褨褩 褉芯蟹胁懈褌泻褍 泻褍褉褨薪薪褟 胁懈写薪芯, 褟泻 褉邪蟹褞褔械 褋泻芯褉芯褔褍褞褌褜褋褟 褋邪屑械 屑芯卸谢懈胁芯褋褌褨 胁邪褉褨邪薪褌薪芯褋褌褨 胁薪邪褋谢褨写芯泻 薪械胁锌懈薪薪芯谐芯 褋锌褉芯褖械薪薪褟 泻褍褉褑械胁芯谐芯 锌褉懈谢邪写写褟."
"袣邪胁芯胁邪 褔懈 褔邪泄薪邪 褎褨谢褨卸邪薪泻邪 褨 褌邪斜邪泻械褉泻邪 褍 XVIII 褋褌. 褦 薪械 锌褉芯褋褌芯 锌褉械写屑械褌邪屑懈 胁卸懈褌泻褍 蟹 芯斜屑械卸械薪懈屑 锌褉懈蟹薪邪褔械薪薪褟屑. 袥褞写懈薪邪 褉芯泻芯泻芯 胁懈泻芯褉懈褋褌芯胁褍褦 褩褏 褟泻 薪邪谐芯写懈 写谢褟 褋邪屑芯锌芯泻邪蟹褍. 小锌芯褋褨斜 褌褉懈屑邪褌懈 褎褨谢褨卸邪薪泻褍, 斜谢褞写褑械, 谢芯卸械褔泻褍, 锌褨写薪芯褋懈褌懈 褩褏 写芯 胁褍褋褌, 褋褌邪胁懈褌懈 薪邪 褋褌褨谢 褌芯褖芯 褋褌邪褦 褋芯褑褨邪谢褜薪懈屑 褨 泻褍谢褜褌褍褉薪懈屑 褉芯蟹锌褨蟹薪邪胁邪谢褜薪懈屑 蟹薪邪泻芯屑, 写芯褋褌芯褌褍 褌邪泻 褋邪屑芯, 褟泻 褨 胁芯谢芯写褨薪薪褟 褌邪斜邪泻械褉泻芯褞 褌邪 锌褉芯褑械写褍褉邪 薪褞褏邪薪薪褟 褌邪斜邪泻懈"
校 啸袉啸 褋褌. 泻芯谢懈 锌械褉械胁邪卸邪谢邪 写械褉械胁'褟薪邪 蟹邪斜褍写芯胁邪 褍 屑褨褋褌邪褏, 泻褍褉褨薪薪褟 胁 谐褉芯屑邪写褋褜泻懈褏 屑褨褋褑褟褏 斜褍谢芯 蟹邪斜芯褉芯薪械薪械, 蟹谐芯写芯屑, 泻芯谢懈 薪械斜械蟹锌械泻邪 锌芯卸械卸 锌械褉械褋褌邪谢邪 斜褍褌懈 邪泻褌褍邪谢褜薪芯褞, 褌邪泻邪 蟹邪斜芯褉芯薪邪 泻褍褉褨薪薪褟 褋褌邪谢邪 胁胁邪卸邪褌懈褋褟 锌芯谢褨褌懈褔薪芯谐芯 谐薪芯斜谢械薪薪褟. "袟邪胁芯褞胁邪薪薪褟" 谐褉芯屑邪写褋褜泻懈褏 屑褨褋褑褜 写谢褟 泻褍褉褨薪薪褟 褋褌邪谢芯 薪邪斜褍胁邪褌懈 锌芯谢褨褌懈褔薪芯谐芯 褏邪褉邪泻褌械褉褍. 袙 褌芯泄 褔邪褋 泻褍褉褑褨 斜褍谢懈 锌褉械写褋褌邪胁薪懈泻邪屑懈 胁芯泄芯胁薪懈褔芯谐芯 褉芯斜褨褌薪懈褔芯谐芯 褉褍褏褍, 褟泻懈泄 蟹邪褋薪褍胁邪胁 胁 袧褨屑械褔褔懈薪褨 锌械褉褕褍 褌邪 薪邪泄褉邪写懈泻邪谢褜薪褨褕褍 锌褉芯褎褋锌褨谢泻褍.
"袣芯卸薪械 褋褍褋锌褨谢褜褋褌胁芯 屑邪褦 褌褨 蟹邪褋芯斜懈 薪邪褋芯谢芯写懈 褌邪 写褍褉屑邪薪懈, 薪邪 褟泻褨 蟹邪褋谢褍谐芯胁褍褦, 褟泻懈褏 锌芯褌褉械斜褍褦 褨 褟泻褨 屑芯卸械 蟹薪械褋褌懈. 袛谢褟 蟹邪褏褨写薪芯褩 泻褍谢褜褌褍褉懈 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褜 褨褖械 蟹 邪薪褌懈褔薪芯褋褌褨 褦 褑懈屑 褑械薪褌褉邪谢褜薪懈屑 写褍褉屑邪薪芯屑. 啸芯褔 褍 褟泻懈褏 褎芯褉屑邪褏 泄芯谐芯 胁卸懈胁邪褞褌褜, 胁褨薪 褋褌邪胁 褌邪泻懈屑 薪械芯写屑褨薪薪懈屑 褋泻谢邪写薪懈泻芯屑 薪邪褕芯褩 泻褍谢褜褌褍褉懈, 褖芯 屑懈 胁卸械 薪邪胁褨褌褜 薪械 褍褟胁谢褟褦屑芯 褋械斜械 斜械蟹 薪褜芯谐芯. 些芯锌褉邪胁写邪, 蟹薪芯胁褍 褨 蟹薪芯胁褍 斜褍谢懈 褋锌褉芯斜懈 胁懈谢褍褔懈褌懈 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褜薪褨 薪邪锌芯褩 蟹 芯斜褨谐褍. 孝邪 胁褋褨 胁芯薪懈, 褟泻 褨 胁褉械褕褌褨 邪屑械褉懈泻邪薪褋褜泻邪 蟹邪斜芯褉芯薪邪, 胁懈褟胁谢褟谢懈褋褟 锌褉芯褋褌芯 写芯薪泻褨褏芯褌褨胁褋褜泻懈屑懈 械锌褨蟹芯写邪屑懈. 袗谢泻芯谐芯谢褜薪邪 蟹邪谢械卸薪褨褋褌褜 褦 芯写薪褨褦褞 蟹 薪邪泄锌芯褌褍卸薪褨褕懈褏 褑懈胁褨谢褨蟹邪褑褨泄薪懈褏 褏胁芯褉芯斜, 邪 褌械, 褖芯 褩褩 屑邪褌械褉褨邪谢褜薪邪 锌褉懈褔懈薪邪 - 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褜 - 胁褋械 芯写薪芯 褌邪泻 屑褨褑薪芯 蟹邪泻芯褉褨薪械薪邪 胁 薪邪褕褨泄 泻褍谢褜褌褍褉褨, 写械屑芯薪褋褌褉褍褦, 褖芯 褌邪 褩褩 褑褨谢泻芯屑 芯褔械胁懈写薪芯 锌芯褌褉械斜褍褦"
袙 褔邪褋懈, 泻芯谢懈 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褜 斜褍胁 薪邪写褌芯 写芯褉芯谐懈屑, 邪 胁 邪锌褌械泻邪褏 蟹'褟胁懈胁褋褟 芯锌褨泄, 褉芯斜褨褌薪懈褔懈泄 泻谢邪褋 袥芯薪写芯薪邪 屑邪褋芯胁芯 胁卸懈胁邪胁 泄芯谐芯 褖芯写薪褟. 袘褍胁 褔邪褋, 泻芯谢懈 芯锌褨褍屑 斜褍胁 薪邪泄褔邪褋褌褨褕懈屑 屑械写懈泻邪屑械薪褌芯屑, 褟泻懈泄 胁懈锌懈褋褍胁邪谢懈 谢褨泻邪褉褨, 泄 泻芯褕褌褍胁邪胁 写械褕械胁芯. 袉 袣邪褉谢 袦邪褉泻褋, 褟泻懈泄 薪邪蟹胁邪胁 褉械谢褨谐褨褞 芯锌褨褍屑芯屑 写谢褟 薪邪褉芯写褍, 蟹薪邪胁, 锌褉芯 褖芯 谐芯胁芯褉懈胁. 孝芯写褨 卸 褨 谐邪褕懈褕 泻褍褉懈谢懈 屑邪褋芯胁芯. 袣芯谢懈 蟹'褟胁懈谢懈褋褟 谐械褉芯褩薪 褌邪 泻芯泻邪褩薪, 胁卸懈胁邪薪薪褟 薪邪褉泻芯褌懈泻褨胁 锌芯褋褌褍锌芯胁芯 锌芯褔邪谢懈 芯斜屑械卸褍胁邪褌懈, 邪 蟹谐芯写芯屑 泄 蟹邪斜芯褉芯薪褟褌懈.
"效懈褋谢械薪薪褨 胁褨写泻褉懈褌褌褟 褋锌褉懈褔懈薪褟褞褌褜褋褟 写芯 褌芯谐芯, 褖芯 薪邪锌褉懈泻褨薪褑褨 XIX 褋褌. 薪邪褉泻芯褌懈泻懈 胁卸械 薪械 褉芯蟹谐谢褟写邪谢懈 泄 薪械 胁卸懈胁邪谢懈 褌邪泻 薪邪褩胁薪芯, 褟泻 褍 锌械褉褕褨泄 锌芯谢芯胁懈薪褨 褑褜芯谐芯-褌邪泻懈 褋褌芯褉褨褔褔褟. 袙褨写泻褉懈褌褌褟 胁懈谐芯褌芯胁谢械薪薪褟 屑芯褉褎褨褞 (1817) 褌邪 谐械褉芯褩薪褍 (1874) 蟹 芯锌褨褞 芯蟹薪邪褔邪褦 写谢褟 褋褎械褉懈 薪邪褉泻芯褌懈泻褨胁 褌械 褋邪屑械, 褖芯 谐芯褉褨谢泻邪 褌邪 斜褉械薪写褨 写谢褟 锌懈褌褍褖懈褏: 锌芯屑薪芯卸械薪薪褟 褌芯泻褋懈褔薪芯褩 写褨褩 蟹褨 蟹薪邪褔薪懈屑懈 褋芯褑褨邪谢褜薪懈屑懈 薪邪褋谢褨写泻邪屑懈. 校锌械褉褕械 屑芯褉褎褨泄 屑邪褋芯胁芯 蟹邪褋褌芯褋芯胁褍褞褌褜 褍 谢邪蟹邪褉械褌邪褏 胁械谢懈泻懈褏 胁芯褦薪 XIX 褋褌. 袉蟹 胁褨泄褋褜泻芯胁芯谐芯 卸懈褌褌褟 屑芯褉褎褨泄 锌褉芯薪懈泻邪褦 褍 褑懈胁褨谢褜薪械 - 胁褨写斜褍胁邪褦褌褜褋褟 写芯褋褌芯褌褍 褌邪泻懈泄 褋邪屑懈泄 锌褉芯褑械褋 械泻褋锌邪薪褋褨褩, 褟泻懈泄 褋锌芯褋褌械褉褨谐邪褦屑芯 锌褨写 褔邪褋 孝褉懈写褑褟褌懈褉褨褔薪芯褩 胁褨泄薪懈 褨蟹 褌褞褌褞薪芯屑."
袛褍卸械 锌芯泻邪蟹芯胁懈屑 褦 锌褉懈泻谢邪写 泻芯谢芯薪褨邪谢褜薪芯褩 锌芯谢褨褌懈泻懈 袘褉懈褌邪薪褨褩 褌邪 锌芯谢褨褌懈泻懈 蟹芯泻褉械屑邪 袨褋褌-褨薪写褋褜泻芯褩 泻芯屑锌邪薪褨褩. 袧邪 锌褉懈泻谢邪写 袣懈褌邪褞, 褍 泻薪懈蟹褨 蟹屑邪谢褜芯胁褍褦褌褜褋褟, 褟泻 斜褉懈褌邪薪褑褨 胁 褌芯褉谐芯胁懈褏 芯斜芯褉褍写泻邪褏 锌褉芯写邪胁邪谢懈 芯锌褨泄, 胁懈褉芯褖械薪懈泄 薪邪 褩褏 锌谢邪薪褌邪褑褨褟褏 胁 袗蟹褨褩 卸, 薪邪褌芯屑褨褋褌褜 泻褍锌褍褞褔懈 褔邪泄. "芯斜褉邪褏褍胁邪谢懈, 褖芯 屑褨卸 1767 褌邪 1850 褉芯泻邪屑懈 褋锌芯卸懈胁邪薪薪褟 芯锌褨褞 胁 袣懈褌邪褩 蟹褉芯褋谢芯 胁 70 褉邪蟹褨胁. 笑褨谢泻芯屑 蟹褉芯蟹褍屑褨谢芯, 褖芯 褌邪泻械 蟹褉芯褋褌邪薪薪褟 褋锌褉懈褔懈薪褟褦 写邪谢械泻芯褋褟卸薪褨 褋芯褑褨邪谢褜薪褨 薪邪褋谢褨写泻懈."
袣芯谢芯薪褨邪谢褜薪邪 袘褉懈褌邪薪褨褟 褋懈褋褌械屑邪褌懈褔薪芯 褌邪 褉芯蟹褋褍写谢懈胁芯 胁懈泻芯褉懈褋褌芯胁褍胁邪谢邪 芯锌褨泄, 褟泻懈泄 斜褍胁 蟹邪斜芯褉芯薪械薪懈泄 褍 褋邪屑褨泄 袗薪谐谢褨褩. 笑懈屑 胁芯薪懈 蟹写芯斜褍胁邪谢懈 锌褉懈斜褍褌泻懈 褌邪 褍褌懈褏芯屑懈褉褞胁邪谢懈 锌褉懈谐薪芯斜谢械薪械 薪邪褋械谢械薪薪褟 泻芯谢芯薪褨泄.
袩芯锌褉懈 褨褋褌芯褉褨褞 薪邪褉泻芯褌懈泻褨胁 胁褨写 锌芯胁褋褞写薪芯谐芯 胁卸懈褌泻褍 写芯 蟹邪斜芯褉芯薪懈, 蟹邪褉邪蟹 屑懈 薪邪 褏胁懈谢褨 胁褨写薪芯胁谢械薪薪褟 谢芯褟谢褜薪芯褋褌褨 写芯 "褋谢邪斜泻懈褏" 薪邪褉泻芯褌懈泻褨胁. 袉褖械 300 褉芯泻褨胁 褌芯屑褍 泻邪胁邪 褔懈 褌褞褌褞薪 斜褍谢懈 褌械卸 褋褍锌械褉械褔谢懈胁懈屑懈 褉械褔芯胁懈薪邪屑懈, 褨薪芯写褨 薪邪胁褨褌褜 蟹邪斜芯褉芯薪械薪懈屑懈 "蟹邪褋芯斜邪屑懈 薪邪褋芯谢芯写懈". 袩褉芯褌械 褍 褋胁褨泄 褔邪褋 褋褍褋锌褨谢褜褋褌胁芯 褨 写械褉卸邪胁邪 胁懈褉褨褕懈谢懈 蟹邪屑褨褋褌褜 蟹邪斜芯褉芯薪懈 芯锌芯写邪褌泻芯胁褍胁邪褌懈 褑褨 锌褉芯写褍泻褌懈. 孝芯卸 胁懈写邪褦褌褜褋褟, 褖芯 谐邪褕懈褕 褌邪 芯锌褨泄 屑芯卸褍褌褜 胁 屑邪泄斜褍褌薪褜芯屑褍 褋褌邪褌懈 褌邪泻懈屑懈 卸 谢械谐邪谢褜薪懈屑懈, 褟泻 褍 褋胁褨泄 褔邪褋 褌褞褌褞薪 褌邪 泻邪胁邪.孝芯斜褌芯 褩褏薪褟 蟹邪斜芯褉芯薪邪 褋锌褉懈褔懈薪褟褦 斜褨谢褜褕懈泄 褋芯褑褨邪谢褜薪懈泄 薪械褋锌芯泻褨泄, 薪褨卸 泻芯薪褌褉芯谢褜芯胁邪薪邪 谢械谐邪谢褨蟹邪褑褨褟. "泻褍褉褨薪薪褟 褌邪 械泻褋锌邪薪褋褨褟 褋锌芯卸懈胁邪薪薪褟 褋谢邪斜泻懈褏 薪邪褉泻芯褌懈泻褨胁 - 褑械 写胁邪 胁薪褍褌褉褨褕薪褜芯 锌芯胁'褟蟹邪薪懈褏 锌褉芯褑械褋懈".
"褌邪泻 褋邪屑芯, 褟泻 褍 XVII 褋褌芯谢褨褌褌褨 褋锌褉芯斜懈 蟹邪斜芯褉芯薪懈褌懈 泻邪胁褍 泄 褌褞褌褞薪 褋懈屑胁芯谢褨蟹褍胁邪谢懈 芯褋褌邪薪薪褨 斜邪褌邪谢褨褩 褋械褉械写薪褜芯胁褨褔薪芯谐芯 褋胁褨褌芯谐谢褟写褍 (褟泻懈泄 褑褨谢泻芯屑 褋锌褉邪胁械写谢懈胁芯 蟹邪褔褍胁 褍 薪芯胁懈褏 "蟹邪褋芯斜邪褏 薪邪褋芯谢芯写懈" 屑芯写械褉薪褍 斜褍褉卸褍邪蟹薪褍 写懈薪邪屑褨泻褍), 褌邪泻 褨 褋褜芯谐芯写薪褨 褖械 薪邪褟胁薪褨 蟹邪斜芯褉芯薪懈 薪邪褉泻芯褌懈泻褨胁 屑芯卸薪邪 褌谢褍屑邪褔懈褌懈 褟泻 芯褋褌邪薪薪褞 斜懈褌胁褍 斜褍褉卸褍邪蟹薪芯褩 褉邪褑褨芯薪邪谢褜薪芯褋褌褨 褌邪 褋邪屑芯写懈褋褑懈锌谢褨薪懈."
效芯谐芯 屑械薪褨 斜褉邪泻褍胁邪谢芯 胁 褑褨泄 泻薪懈蟹褨?
袩褉芯 锌褉褟薪芯褖褨 写褍卸械 屑邪谢芯 褉芯蟹泻邪蟹邪薪芯, 薪邪 卸邪谢褜. 袉 写褍卸械 褏芯褌褨谢芯褋褟 斜, 蟹胁褨褋薪芯, 褌芯褔泻褍 蟹芯褉褍 斜褨芯谢芯谐褨胁 械胁芯谢褞褑褨芯薪褨褋褌褨胁 锌褉芯 褉褨蟹薪褨 锌芯胁械写褨薪泻芯胁褨 芯褋芯斜谢懈胁芯褋褌褨, 锌芯胁'褟蟹邪薪褨 褨蟹 褌懈屑 褋邪屑懈屑 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢械屑, 薪邪 锌褉懈泻谢邪写.
效芯屑褍 褑褨泻邪胁芯? 袗胁褌芯褉 褉芯蟹锌芯胁褨写邪褦 锌褉芯 褌械, 褟泻褨 褑褨 锌褉芯写褍泻褌懈 蟹屑褨薪褞胁邪谢懈 卸懈褌褌褟 褌邪 褋芯褑褨邪谢褜薪懈泄 褌褉懈斜 褍 褉褨蟹薪懈褏 褦胁褉芯锌械泄褋褜泻懈褏 泻褉邪褩薪邪褏. 袨褌 薪邪 锌褉懈泻谢邪写, 写芯 锌芯褟胁懈 泻邪胁懈, 褦胁褉芯锌械泄褑褨 胁卸懈胁邪谢懈 胁械谢懈褔械蟹薪褍 泻褨谢褜泻褨褋褌褜 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褞. 些芯写薪褟 胁褨写 屑邪谢芯谐芯 写芯 胁械谢懈泻芯谐芯 胁懈锌懈胁邪谢懈 写芯 3 谢褨褌褉褨胁 锌懈胁邪, 写褍卸械 锌芯锌褍谢褟褉薪懈屑 斜褍胁 锌懈胁薪懈泄 褋褍锌. 校褟胁懈谢懈?
袧邪锌械胁薪械 薪邪泄褑褨泻邪胁褨褕械 斜褍谢芯 褔懈褌邪褌懈 锌褉芯 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褜 褌邪 锌芯胁械写褨薪泻芯胁褨 锌邪褌械褉薪懈, 褟泻褨 胁褨薪 褎芯褉屑褍褦. 袩褉芯 褕懈薪泻胁邪褋懈, 褌邪 写械 胁芯薪懈 锌褉懈卸懈谢懈褋褟. 袙懈褟胁谢褟褦褌褜褋褟 褌褉邪写懈褑褨褩 锌懈褌褌褟 褍 泻芯褉褔屑褨 写褍卸械 胁褨写褉褨蟹薪褟谢懈褋褟 褍 袘褉懈褌邪薪褨褩 蟹 袗屑械褉懈泻芯褞 褌邪 袧褨屑械褔褔懈薪褨. 袦械薪褨 薪邪泄褑褨泻邪胁褨褕械 斜褍谢芯 褔懈褌邪褌懈 锌褉芯 褋芯褑褨邪谢褜薪褍 褉芯谢褜 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褞. 袧邪锌褉懈泻谢邪写, 褉懈褌褍邪谢 锌懈褌懈 "蟹邪 蟹写芯褉芯胁'褟" (锌懈褌懈 写芯 泻芯谐芯褋褜) 屑邪褦 写邪胁薪褦 锌芯褏芯写卸械薪薪褟 (锌褉懈薪邪泄屑薪褨 蟹 褔邪褋褨胁 褋褌邪褉芯写邪胁薪褜芯褩 袚褉械褑褨褩) 褨 芯蟹薪邪褔邪褦 胁懈蟹薪邪薪薪褟 胁蟹邪褦屑薪芯褩 锌褉懈褏懈谢褜薪芯褋褌褨 褌邪 写褉褍卸斜懈. 孝械, 褖芯 褍 褉褨蟹薪懈褏 薪邪褉芯写邪褏 谐芯胁芯褉褟褌褜 锌褉懈 褑褜芯屑褍 褌械卸 屑邪褦 胁邪卸谢懈胁械 蟹薪邪褔械薪薪褟 褨 褦, 褌邪泻 斜懈 屑芯胁懈褌懈, 褎芯褉屑褍谢邪屑懈, 褟泻褨 褎芯褉屑褍褞褌褜 胁蟹邪褦屑薪褍 写芯胁褨褉褍. 袙芯薪懈 薪邪褔械 蟹邪泻谢褟褌褌褟 芯褋胁褟褔褍褞褌褜 薪邪锌褨泄, 芯蟹薪邪褔邪褞褌褜, 褖芯 薪邪锌褨泄 斜械蟹锌械褔薪懈泄, 薪械 芯褌褉褍褦薪懈泄. 些械 褍 XVI 褋褌. 泻芯卸薪械 蟹邪褋褌褨谢谢褟 蟹邪泻褨薪褔褍胁邪谢芯褋褟 褌芯褌邪谢褜薪懈屑 褋锌'褟薪褨薪薪褟屑 褍褋褨褏 谐芯褋褌械泄, 褨 斜褍褌懈 褌胁械褉械蟹懈屑 薪邪 褌邪泻芯屑褍 写褨泄褋褌胁褨 斜褍谢芯 薪械褔褍胁邪薪芯褞 薪械锌芯胁邪谐芯褞.
袣薪邪泄锌褍 屑芯卸薪邪 胁胁邪卸邪褌懈 褉械蟹械褉胁邪褌芯屑, 写械 蟹斜械褉械谐谢懈褋褟 邪褉褏邪褩褔薪褨 蟹胁懈褔邪褩 谢褞写褋褌胁邪. 袛芯 锌褉懈泻谢邪写褍 邪褉褏邪褩褔薪邪 锌褉芯褑械写褍褉邪, 褟泻邪 蟹斜械褉械谐谢邪褋褟 褍 锌懈褌薪懈褏 褉懈褌褍邪谢邪褏, 邪薪褌褉芯锌芯谢芯谐懈 薪邪蟹懈胁邪褞褌褜 "锌芯褌谢邪褔" 褨 胁芯薪邪 褋懈屑胁芯谢褨蟹褍褦 卸械褉褌胁褍, 写械 邪写褉械褋邪褌芯屑 褦 薪械 斜芯卸械褋褌胁芯, 邪 褨薪褕褨 谢褞写懈. 袦芯胁邪 褨写械 锌褉芯 褌械, 泻芯谢懈 褏褌芯褋褜 蟹 泻芯屑锌邪薪褨褩 "褋褌邪胁懈褌褜" 薪邪锌芯褩. 袙褨写锌芯胁褨写薪芯 锌芯褌褨屑, 蟹谐褨写薪芯 蟹 薪械锌懈褋邪薪懈屑懈 锌褉邪胁懈谢邪屑懈, 褋褌邪胁懈褌懈 屑邪褞褌褜 泄 褨薪褕褨 褍褔邪褋薪懈泻懈 泻芯屑锌邪薪褨褩 锌芯 褔械褉蟹褨. 孝褍褌 写谢褟 锌芯褉褨胁薪褟薪薪褟 屑芯卸薪邪 蟹谐邪写邪褌懈 胁芯卸写褨胁 锌谢械屑械薪, 褟泻褨 芯斜写邪褉芯胁褍胁邪谢懈 芯写懈薪 芯写薪芯谐芯, 褨 褖芯斜 薪械 蟹谐邪薪褜斜懈褌懈褋褟, 锌芯褌褉褨斜薪芯 斜褍谢芯 斜褍褌懈 褉褨胁薪懈屑 褍 写邪褉褍胁邪薪薪褟褏. 袗斜芯 卸 蟹谐邪写邪泄褌械 小芯谢芯屑芯薪邪 褌邪 褑邪褉懈褑褞 褋邪胁褋褜泻褍.
"校褔邪褋薪懈泻懈 锌懈褌薪芯谐芯 泻芯谢邪 - 褑械 褍褔邪褋薪懈泻懈 锌芯褌谢邪褔褍. 袟 褨薪褋褌懈薪泻褌懈胁薪芯褞 薪械锌芯屑懈谢褜薪褨褋褌褞 锌械褉械谢褨褌薪懈褏 锌褌邪褏褨胁 胁芯薪懈 胁褨写褌胁芯褉褞褞褌褜 锌褉邪胁懈谢邪 泄 褉懈褌褍邪谢懈 锌褉芯锌芯薪褍胁邪薪薪褟 褌邪 胁褨写写褟褔褍胁邪薪薪褟, 锌褉芯 锌芯褏芯写卸械薪薪褟 褟泻懈褏 薪械 屑邪褞褌褜 卸芯写薪芯谐芯 褍褟胁谢械薪薪褟. 校 褑褜芯屑褍 褩屑 写芯锌芯屑邪谐邪褦 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褜, 写芯胁泻芯谢邪 褟泻芯谐芯 胁褋械, 蟹褉械褕褌芯褞, 泄 芯斜械褉褌邪褦褌褜褋褟. 胁褨薪 蟹屑懈胁邪褦 薪芯胁褨褕褨 褑懈胁褨谢褨蟹芯胁邪薪褨 胁械褉褋褌胁懈 褋胁褨写芯屑芯褋褌褨, 胁褨写泻褉懈胁邪褞褔懈 写芯褋褌褍锌 写芯 褌芯谐芯 邪褉褏邪褩褔薪芯谐芯 褕邪褉褍, 写械 褋褌邪薪懈 褋锌'褟薪褨薪薪褟, 蟹斜褉邪褌邪薪薪褟 褨 蟹屑邪谐邪薪薪褟 蟹 褌邪泻芯褞 褋邪屑芯芯褔械胁懈写薪褨褋褌褞 锌械褉械褏芯写褟褌褜 芯写懈薪 胁 芯写薪芯谐芯, 褟泻 褨 薪邪 斜械薪泻械褌邪褏 锌'褟褌褋芯褌, 褌懈锟斤拷褟褔褍 褔懈 褌褉懈 褌懈褋褟褔褨 褉芯泻褨胁 褌芯屑褍"
"袩懈褌懈 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褜 - 胁褨写写邪胁薪邪 芯蟹薪邪褔邪褦 胁懈褌胁芯褉褞胁邪褌懈 褋锌褨谢褜薪芯褌褍. 袧邪泄写邪胁薪褨褕褨 锌懈褌薪褨 褉懈褌褍邪谢懈 - 褑械 写械屑芯薪褋褌褉邪褑褨褟 锌芯胁'褟蟹邪薪芯褋褌褨 屑褨卸 锌懈褌褑褟屑懈"
孝邪泻芯卸 褌褍褌 芯锌懈褋邪薪邪 褨褋褌芯褉褨褟 胁懈写芯蟹屑褨薪懈 蟹邪褩蟹写褍 褌邪 泻芯褉褔屑懈 褍 谐芯褌械谢褨 褌邪 褕懈薪泻胁邪褋懈.
"袨褔械胁懈写薪芯, 褎褨蟹懈褔薪邪 斜谢懈蟹褜泻褨褋褌褜 褕懈薪泻胁邪褋褍 芯卸懈胁谢褟褦 邪褌邪胁褨褋褌懈褔薪懈泄 褋锌芯谐邪写 锌褉芯 褉芯谢褜 谐芯褋锌芯写邪褉褟 褟泻 芯褋芯斜懈, 褖芯 胁谢邪褕褌芯胁褍褦 谐芯褋褌懈薪褍".
"孝邪 芯斜褋褌邪胁懈薪邪, 褖芯 胁褨写 锌芯褔邪褌泻褍 XIX 褋褌. 邪薪谐谢芯-邪屑械褉懈泻邪薪褋褜泻邪 泻薪邪泄锌邪 蟹胁械褌褜褋褟 泻芯褉芯褌泻芯 "斜邪褉", 蟹薪邪褏芯写懈褌褜 锌褉芯褋褌械 锌芯褟褋薪械薪薪褟 胁 褌芯屑褍, 褖芯 褕懈薪泻胁邪褋 (斜邪褉) 褨 泻薪邪泄锌邪 蟹谢懈谢懈褋褟, 褋褌邪谢懈 褨写械薪褌懈褔薪懈屑懈. 袧邪 褦胁褉芯锌械泄褋褜泻芯屑褍 泻芯薪褌懈薪械薪褌褨, 邪 薪邪写褌芯 胁 袧褨屑械褔褔懈薪褨, 斜邪褉, 褌芯斜褌芯 褕懈薪泻胁邪褋, 褌邪泻 薪褨泻芯谢懈 泄 薪械 蟹写芯斜褍胁褋褟 薪邪 褌邪泻械 写芯屑褨薪邪薪褌薪械 蟹薪邪褔械薪薪褟. 校 锌芯褉褨胁薪褟薪薪褨 蟹 锌褉芯写芯胁谐褍胁邪褌懈屑 邪屑械褉懈泻邪薪褋褜泻懈屑 斜邪褉芯屑, 褕懈薪泻胁邪褋 褍 薪褨屑械褑褜泻懈褏 泻薪邪泄锌邪褏 胁懈谐谢褟写邪褦 泻芯褉芯褌泻懈屑 芯斜褉褍斜泻芯屑. 袙 袗薪谐谢褨褩 褌邪 小楔袗 褑褨谢泻芯屑 薪芯褉屑邪谢褜薪芯 锌懈褌懈 锌褉懈 褕懈薪泻胁邪褋褨, 薪邪褌芯屑褨褋褌褜 褍 薪褨屑械褑褜泻褨泄 泻薪邪泄锌芯胁褨泄 泻褍谢褜褌褍褉褨, 蟹谐褨写薪芯 蟹 薪械锌懈褋邪薪懈屑懈 锌褉邪胁懈谢邪屑懈, 褑械 锌褉懈胁褨谢械泄 蟹邪胁褋褨写薪懈泻褨胁"
袩芯褟胁邪 泻邪胁懈, 褟泻邪 屑邪谢邪 锌褉芯褌懈谢械卸薪懈泄 胁锌谢懈胁 薪邪 芯褉谐邪薪褨蟹屑, 斜褍谢邪 褉邪写芯 锌褉懈泄薪褟褌邪 锌褉芯褌械褋褌邪薪褌邪屑懈, 褟泻褨 胁 褌芯泄 褔邪褋 邪泻褌懈胁薪芯 胁锌谢懈胁邪谢懈 薪邪 褉芯蟹胁懈褌芯泻 械泻芯薪芯屑褨泻懈. 小锌芯褔邪褌泻褍 泻邪胁褍 锌芯写邪胁邪谢懈 褍 胁邪蟹邪褏 褌邪 谐谢械褔懈泻邪褏 写谢褟 锌懈胁邪 褔懈 褋懈写褉褍, 褟泻褨 斜褍谢懈 胁 泻芯卸薪芯屑褍 写芯屑褨. 袩芯褋褌褍锌芯胁芯 锌懈褌褌褟 泻邪胁懈 褋褌邪谢芯 褉懈褌褍邪谢褨蟹芯胁邪薪懈屑, 蟹'褟胁懈谢懈褋褟 褋锌械褑褨邪谢褜薪褨 邪褌褉懈斜褍褌懈 褌邪 蟹胁懈褔邪褩 褟泻 褩褩 锌褉邪胁懈谢褜薪芯 锌懈褌懈.
笑褨泻邪胁芯, 褖芯 袗薪谐谢褨褟 斜褍谢邪 胁械谢懈泻懈屑 锌芯褋褌邪褔邪谢褜薪懈泻芯屑 泻邪胁懈, 褨 褋邪屑械 褌邪屑 薪邪泄褕胁懈写褕械 褉芯蟹锌芯胁褋褞写懈谢邪褋褟 泻褍谢褜褌褍褉邪 锌懈褌褌褟 泻邪胁懈. 袘褉懈褌邪薪褨褟 斜褍谢邪 泻邪胁芯胁芯褞 泻褉邪褩薪芯褞, 邪 褔邪泄 锌褉懈泄褕芯胁 蟹谐芯写芯屑.
"袣邪胁邪 褨 褔邪泄 胁懈褟胁谢褟褞褌褜褋褟 锌褉懈褉芯写卸械薪懈屑懈 屑褨褖邪薪褋褜泻懈屑懈 薪邪锌芯褟屑懈 斜芯写邪泄 褍 褌芯屑褍, 褖芯 胁芯薪懈 褑褨谢泻芯屑 械屑邪薪褋懈锌芯胁邪薪褨 胁褨写 斜褍写褜-褟泻芯谐芯 邪褉褏邪褩褔薪芯谐芯 蟹薪邪褔械薪薪褟 锌懈褌褌褟. 袣邪胁芯褞 褔懈 褔邪褦屑 薪械 褑芯泻邪褞褌褜褋褟, 薪懈屑懈 薪械 锌'褦屑芯 写芯 泻芯谐芯褋褜, 褌褍褌 薪褨褏褌芯 薪械 蟹屑邪谐邪褦褌褜褋褟 褍 胁懈褋褌邪胁谢褟薪薪褨. 小锌芯卸懈胁邪褔褨 泻邪胁懈 褌邪 褔邪褞 褦 薪械 胁薪褍褌褉褨褕薪褜芯 锌芯胁'褟蟹邪薪芯褞 褋锌褨谢褜薪芯褌芯褞, 邪 蟹褨斜褉邪薪薪褟屑 薪邪谐芯谢芯褕械薪懈褏 褨薪写懈胁褨写褍邪谢褨褋褌褨胁."
袧邪 褌褉邪写懈褑褨褩 锌懈褌褌褟 锌懈胁邪 褌邪 胁懈薪邪 写褍卸械 锌芯胁锌谢懈胁邪谢芯 锌芯褕懈褉械薪薪褟 谐芯褉褨谢泻懈. 袦邪泻褋懈屑邪谢褜薪懈泄 械褎械泻褌 褋锌'褟薪褨薪薪褟, 写械褕械胁邪 褑褨薪邪, 蟹褉芯斜懈谢懈 谐芯褉褨谢泻褍 写懈褌褟屑 锌褉芯屑懈褋谢芯胁芯褩 褉械胁芯谢褞褑褨褩 薪邪褉褨胁薪褨 蟹 褌泻邪褑褜泻懈屑 胁械褉褋褌邪褌芯屑. 袙芯薪邪 斜邪谐邪褌芯 褖芯 蟹屑褨薪懈谢邪 褍 褋褍褋锌褨谢褜褋褌胁褨. 袟屑褨薪懈谢邪 泄 泻褍谢褜褌褍褉褍 锌懈褌褌褟. 小邪屑械 胁 锌褉芯屑懈褋谢芯胁褨泄 袆胁褉芯锌褨 褌邪 袗屑械褉懈褑褨 褉邪蟹芯屑 蟹 谐芯褉褨谢泻芯褞 蟹'褟胁懈谢邪褋褟 褌褉邪写懈褑褨褟 锌懈褌懈 薪邪芯写懈薪褑褨. 袪邪薪褨褕械 褉芯蟹锌懈胁邪薪薪褟 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褜薪懈褏 薪邪锌芯褩胁 斜褍谢懈 褋褍褌芯 泻芯谢械泻褌懈胁薪懈屑懈.
袣褍谢褜褌褍褉邪 锌懈褌褌褟 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褞 褌邪 泻邪胁懈 锌芯褋褨写邪谢懈 胁邪卸谢懈胁械 屑褨褋褑械 写谢褟 褋芯褑褨邪谢褨蟹邪褑褨褩. 校 啸VII-XVIII 褋褌. 泻邪胁邪褉薪褟 写谢褟 屑褨褖邪薪褋褌胁邪 斜褍谢邪 胁邪卸谢懈胁懈屑 屑褨褋褑械屑 蟹褍褋褌褉褨褔械泄, 写懈褋锌褍褌褨胁 褌邪 胁懈褉褨褕械薪薪褟 褋锌褉邪胁. 孝褍写懈 蟹邪蟹胁懈褔邪泄 薪械 写芯锌褍褋泻邪谢懈褋褟 卸褨薪泻懈, 褨 泻邪胁邪褉薪褨 褨薪芯写褨 锌械褉械褌胁芯褉褞胁邪谢懈褋褜 薪邪胁褨褌褜 薪邪 斜褨蟹薪械褋-芯褋械褉械写泻懈. 校 XIX 褋褌. 锌芯写褨斜薪褍 褎褍薪泻褑褨褞 泻芯褉褔屑邪 锌芯褔邪谢邪 胁褨写褨谐褉邪胁邪褌懈 写谢褟 褉芯斜褨褌薪懈褔芯谐芯 泻谢邪褋褍. 袉 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褜, 褨 泻邪胁邪 褋褌懈屑褍谢褞褞褌褜 锌械胁薪褨 褟泻芯褋褌褨, 褖芯 褩褏 胁褨写锌芯胁褨写薪懈泄 泻谢邪褋 胁胁邪卸邪褦 蟹邪 胁邪卸谢懈胁褨. "携泻 泻邪胁邪 褋褌懈屑褍谢褞褦 褌胁械褉械蟹褨褋褌褜 褌邪 褨薪写懈胁褨写褍邪谢褨蟹屑, 褌邪泻 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褜 褋锌褉懈褟褦 锌褉芯谢械褌邪褉褋褜泻懈屑 褔械褋薪芯褌邪屑 泻芯谢械泻褌懈胁褨蟹屑褍 褨 褋芯谢褨写邪褉薪芯褋褌褨".
孝褞褌褞薪 褌邪泻芯卸 蟹屑褨薪懈胁 斜邪谐邪褌芯 褖芯写械薪薪懈褏 褉懈褌褍邪谢褨胁. 小锌芯褔邪褌泻褍 褑械 斜褍谢邪 褉芯蟹泻褨褕, 锌芯褌褨屑 斜褍写械薪薪褨褋褌褜 褨 蟹 褔邪褋芯屑 写芯胁谐懈泄 锌褉芯褑械褋 褉芯蟹锌邪谢褞胁邪薪薪褟 谢褞谢褜泻懈 蟹邪屑褨薪懈谢懈 褕胁懈写泻褨 褋懈谐邪褉械褌懈.
"袧邪褋芯谢芯写邪 胁褨写 泻褍褉褨薪薪褟 锌芯谢褟谐邪褦 写邪谢械泻芯 薪械 褌褨谢褜泻懈 褍 褎邪褉屑邪泻芯谢芯谐褨褔薪褨泄 写褨褩 薪褨泻芯褌懈薪褍. 袧械 屑械薪褕 胁邪卸谢懈胁懈屑懈 褦 褨 卸械褋褌懈 泻褍褉褑褟. 袩褨写 褑懈屑 芯谐谢褟写芯屑 泻褍褉褨薪薪褟 褌褨褋薪芯 褋锌芯褉褨写薪械薪械 蟹褨 褋锌芯卸懈胁邪薪薪褟屑 谐邪褉褟褔懈褏 薪邪锌芯褩胁. ...褌芯 锌褉懈褦屑薪褨褕械, 褖芯 斜褨谢褜褕械 褉褨蟹薪懈褏 胁邪褉褨邪薪褌褨胁 卸械褋褌褨胁 胁褨写泻褉懈胁邪褦 褑械泄 锌褉械写屑械褌. 袧邪 锌褉懈泻谢邪写褨 褨褋褌芯褉褨褩 褉芯蟹胁懈褌泻褍 泻褍褉褨薪薪褟 胁懈写薪芯, 褟泻 褉邪蟹褞褔械 褋泻芯褉芯褔褍褞褌褜褋褟 褋邪屑械 屑芯卸谢懈胁芯褋褌褨 胁邪褉褨邪薪褌薪芯褋褌褨 胁薪邪褋谢褨写芯泻 薪械胁锌懈薪薪芯谐芯 褋锌褉芯褖械薪薪褟 泻褍褉褑械胁芯谐芯 锌褉懈谢邪写写褟."
"袣邪胁芯胁邪 褔懈 褔邪泄薪邪 褎褨谢褨卸邪薪泻邪 褨 褌邪斜邪泻械褉泻邪 褍 XVIII 褋褌. 褦 薪械 锌褉芯褋褌芯 锌褉械写屑械褌邪屑懈 胁卸懈褌泻褍 蟹 芯斜屑械卸械薪懈屑 锌褉懈蟹薪邪褔械薪薪褟屑. 袥褞写懈薪邪 褉芯泻芯泻芯 胁懈泻芯褉懈褋褌芯胁褍褦 褩褏 褟泻 薪邪谐芯写懈 写谢褟 褋邪屑芯锌芯泻邪蟹褍. 小锌芯褋褨斜 褌褉懈屑邪褌懈 褎褨谢褨卸邪薪泻褍, 斜谢褞写褑械, 谢芯卸械褔泻褍, 锌褨写薪芯褋懈褌懈 褩褏 写芯 胁褍褋褌, 褋褌邪胁懈褌懈 薪邪 褋褌褨谢 褌芯褖芯 褋褌邪褦 褋芯褑褨邪谢褜薪懈屑 褨 泻褍谢褜褌褍褉薪懈屑 褉芯蟹锌褨蟹薪邪胁邪谢褜薪懈屑 蟹薪邪泻芯屑, 写芯褋褌芯褌褍 褌邪泻 褋邪屑芯, 褟泻 褨 胁芯谢芯写褨薪薪褟 褌邪斜邪泻械褉泻芯褞 褌邪 锌褉芯褑械写褍褉邪 薪褞褏邪薪薪褟 褌邪斜邪泻懈"
校 啸袉啸 褋褌. 泻芯谢懈 锌械褉械胁邪卸邪谢邪 写械褉械胁'褟薪邪 蟹邪斜褍写芯胁邪 褍 屑褨褋褌邪褏, 泻褍褉褨薪薪褟 胁 谐褉芯屑邪写褋褜泻懈褏 屑褨褋褑褟褏 斜褍谢芯 蟹邪斜芯褉芯薪械薪械, 蟹谐芯写芯屑, 泻芯谢懈 薪械斜械蟹锌械泻邪 锌芯卸械卸 锌械褉械褋褌邪谢邪 斜褍褌懈 邪泻褌褍邪谢褜薪芯褞, 褌邪泻邪 蟹邪斜芯褉芯薪邪 泻褍褉褨薪薪褟 褋褌邪谢邪 胁胁邪卸邪褌懈褋褟 锌芯谢褨褌懈褔薪芯谐芯 谐薪芯斜谢械薪薪褟. "袟邪胁芯褞胁邪薪薪褟" 谐褉芯屑邪写褋褜泻懈褏 屑褨褋褑褜 写谢褟 泻褍褉褨薪薪褟 褋褌邪谢芯 薪邪斜褍胁邪褌懈 锌芯谢褨褌懈褔薪芯谐芯 褏邪褉邪泻褌械褉褍. 袙 褌芯泄 褔邪褋 泻褍褉褑褨 斜褍谢懈 锌褉械写褋褌邪胁薪懈泻邪屑懈 胁芯泄芯胁薪懈褔芯谐芯 褉芯斜褨褌薪懈褔芯谐芯 褉褍褏褍, 褟泻懈泄 蟹邪褋薪褍胁邪胁 胁 袧褨屑械褔褔懈薪褨 锌械褉褕褍 褌邪 薪邪泄褉邪写懈泻邪谢褜薪褨褕褍 锌褉芯褎褋锌褨谢泻褍.
"袣芯卸薪械 褋褍褋锌褨谢褜褋褌胁芯 屑邪褦 褌褨 蟹邪褋芯斜懈 薪邪褋芯谢芯写懈 褌邪 写褍褉屑邪薪懈, 薪邪 褟泻褨 蟹邪褋谢褍谐芯胁褍褦, 褟泻懈褏 锌芯褌褉械斜褍褦 褨 褟泻褨 屑芯卸械 蟹薪械褋褌懈. 袛谢褟 蟹邪褏褨写薪芯褩 泻褍谢褜褌褍褉懈 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褜 褨褖械 蟹 邪薪褌懈褔薪芯褋褌褨 褦 褑懈屑 褑械薪褌褉邪谢褜薪懈屑 写褍褉屑邪薪芯屑. 啸芯褔 褍 褟泻懈褏 褎芯褉屑邪褏 泄芯谐芯 胁卸懈胁邪褞褌褜, 胁褨薪 褋褌邪胁 褌邪泻懈屑 薪械芯写屑褨薪薪懈屑 褋泻谢邪写薪懈泻芯屑 薪邪褕芯褩 泻褍谢褜褌褍褉懈, 褖芯 屑懈 胁卸械 薪邪胁褨褌褜 薪械 褍褟胁谢褟褦屑芯 褋械斜械 斜械蟹 薪褜芯谐芯. 些芯锌褉邪胁写邪, 蟹薪芯胁褍 褨 蟹薪芯胁褍 斜褍谢懈 褋锌褉芯斜懈 胁懈谢褍褔懈褌懈 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褜薪褨 薪邪锌芯褩 蟹 芯斜褨谐褍. 孝邪 胁褋褨 胁芯薪懈, 褟泻 褨 胁褉械褕褌褨 邪屑械褉懈泻邪薪褋褜泻邪 蟹邪斜芯褉芯薪邪, 胁懈褟胁谢褟谢懈褋褟 锌褉芯褋褌芯 写芯薪泻褨褏芯褌褨胁褋褜泻懈屑懈 械锌褨蟹芯写邪屑懈. 袗谢泻芯谐芯谢褜薪邪 蟹邪谢械卸薪褨褋褌褜 褦 芯写薪褨褦褞 蟹 薪邪泄锌芯褌褍卸薪褨褕懈褏 褑懈胁褨谢褨蟹邪褑褨泄薪懈褏 褏胁芯褉芯斜, 邪 褌械, 褖芯 褩褩 屑邪褌械褉褨邪谢褜薪邪 锌褉懈褔懈薪邪 - 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褜 - 胁褋械 芯写薪芯 褌邪泻 屑褨褑薪芯 蟹邪泻芯褉褨薪械薪邪 胁 薪邪褕褨泄 泻褍谢褜褌褍褉褨, 写械屑芯薪褋褌褉褍褦, 褖芯 褌邪 褩褩 褑褨谢泻芯屑 芯褔械胁懈写薪芯 锌芯褌褉械斜褍褦"
袙 褔邪褋懈, 泻芯谢懈 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褜 斜褍胁 薪邪写褌芯 写芯褉芯谐懈屑, 邪 胁 邪锌褌械泻邪褏 蟹'褟胁懈胁褋褟 芯锌褨泄, 褉芯斜褨褌薪懈褔懈泄 泻谢邪褋 袥芯薪写芯薪邪 屑邪褋芯胁芯 胁卸懈胁邪胁 泄芯谐芯 褖芯写薪褟. 袘褍胁 褔邪褋, 泻芯谢懈 芯锌褨褍屑 斜褍胁 薪邪泄褔邪褋褌褨褕懈屑 屑械写懈泻邪屑械薪褌芯屑, 褟泻懈泄 胁懈锌懈褋褍胁邪谢懈 谢褨泻邪褉褨, 泄 泻芯褕褌褍胁邪胁 写械褕械胁芯. 袉 袣邪褉谢 袦邪褉泻褋, 褟泻懈泄 薪邪蟹胁邪胁 褉械谢褨谐褨褞 芯锌褨褍屑芯屑 写谢褟 薪邪褉芯写褍, 蟹薪邪胁, 锌褉芯 褖芯 谐芯胁芯褉懈胁. 孝芯写褨 卸 褨 谐邪褕懈褕 泻褍褉懈谢懈 屑邪褋芯胁芯. 袣芯谢懈 蟹'褟胁懈谢懈褋褟 谐械褉芯褩薪 褌邪 泻芯泻邪褩薪, 胁卸懈胁邪薪薪褟 薪邪褉泻芯褌懈泻褨胁 锌芯褋褌褍锌芯胁芯 锌芯褔邪谢懈 芯斜屑械卸褍胁邪褌懈, 邪 蟹谐芯写芯屑 泄 蟹邪斜芯褉芯薪褟褌懈.
"效懈褋谢械薪薪褨 胁褨写泻褉懈褌褌褟 褋锌褉懈褔懈薪褟褞褌褜褋褟 写芯 褌芯谐芯, 褖芯 薪邪锌褉懈泻褨薪褑褨 XIX 褋褌. 薪邪褉泻芯褌懈泻懈 胁卸械 薪械 褉芯蟹谐谢褟写邪谢懈 泄 薪械 胁卸懈胁邪谢懈 褌邪泻 薪邪褩胁薪芯, 褟泻 褍 锌械褉褕褨泄 锌芯谢芯胁懈薪褨 褑褜芯谐芯-褌邪泻懈 褋褌芯褉褨褔褔褟. 袙褨写泻褉懈褌褌褟 胁懈谐芯褌芯胁谢械薪薪褟 屑芯褉褎褨褞 (1817) 褌邪 谐械褉芯褩薪褍 (1874) 蟹 芯锌褨褞 芯蟹薪邪褔邪褦 写谢褟 褋褎械褉懈 薪邪褉泻芯褌懈泻褨胁 褌械 褋邪屑械, 褖芯 谐芯褉褨谢泻邪 褌邪 斜褉械薪写褨 写谢褟 锌懈褌褍褖懈褏: 锌芯屑薪芯卸械薪薪褟 褌芯泻褋懈褔薪芯褩 写褨褩 蟹褨 蟹薪邪褔薪懈屑懈 褋芯褑褨邪谢褜薪懈屑懈 薪邪褋谢褨写泻邪屑懈. 校锌械褉褕械 屑芯褉褎褨泄 屑邪褋芯胁芯 蟹邪褋褌芯褋芯胁褍褞褌褜 褍 谢邪蟹邪褉械褌邪褏 胁械谢懈泻懈褏 胁芯褦薪 XIX 褋褌. 袉蟹 胁褨泄褋褜泻芯胁芯谐芯 卸懈褌褌褟 屑芯褉褎褨泄 锌褉芯薪懈泻邪褦 褍 褑懈胁褨谢褜薪械 - 胁褨写斜褍胁邪褦褌褜褋褟 写芯褋褌芯褌褍 褌邪泻懈泄 褋邪屑懈泄 锌褉芯褑械褋 械泻褋锌邪薪褋褨褩, 褟泻懈泄 褋锌芯褋褌械褉褨谐邪褦屑芯 锌褨写 褔邪褋 孝褉懈写褑褟褌懈褉褨褔薪芯褩 胁褨泄薪懈 褨蟹 褌褞褌褞薪芯屑."
袛褍卸械 锌芯泻邪蟹芯胁懈屑 褦 锌褉懈泻谢邪写 泻芯谢芯薪褨邪谢褜薪芯褩 锌芯谢褨褌懈泻懈 袘褉懈褌邪薪褨褩 褌邪 锌芯谢褨褌懈泻懈 蟹芯泻褉械屑邪 袨褋褌-褨薪写褋褜泻芯褩 泻芯屑锌邪薪褨褩. 袧邪 锌褉懈泻谢邪写 袣懈褌邪褞, 褍 泻薪懈蟹褨 蟹屑邪谢褜芯胁褍褦褌褜褋褟, 褟泻 斜褉懈褌邪薪褑褨 胁 褌芯褉谐芯胁懈褏 芯斜芯褉褍写泻邪褏 锌褉芯写邪胁邪谢懈 芯锌褨泄, 胁懈褉芯褖械薪懈泄 薪邪 褩褏 锌谢邪薪褌邪褑褨褟褏 胁 袗蟹褨褩 卸, 薪邪褌芯屑褨褋褌褜 泻褍锌褍褞褔懈 褔邪泄. "芯斜褉邪褏褍胁邪谢懈, 褖芯 屑褨卸 1767 褌邪 1850 褉芯泻邪屑懈 褋锌芯卸懈胁邪薪薪褟 芯锌褨褞 胁 袣懈褌邪褩 蟹褉芯褋谢芯 胁 70 褉邪蟹褨胁. 笑褨谢泻芯屑 蟹褉芯蟹褍屑褨谢芯, 褖芯 褌邪泻械 蟹褉芯褋褌邪薪薪褟 褋锌褉懈褔懈薪褟褦 写邪谢械泻芯褋褟卸薪褨 褋芯褑褨邪谢褜薪褨 薪邪褋谢褨写泻懈."
袣芯谢芯薪褨邪谢褜薪邪 袘褉懈褌邪薪褨褟 褋懈褋褌械屑邪褌懈褔薪芯 褌邪 褉芯蟹褋褍写谢懈胁芯 胁懈泻芯褉懈褋褌芯胁褍胁邪谢邪 芯锌褨泄, 褟泻懈泄 斜褍胁 蟹邪斜芯褉芯薪械薪懈泄 褍 褋邪屑褨泄 袗薪谐谢褨褩. 笑懈屑 胁芯薪懈 蟹写芯斜褍胁邪谢懈 锌褉懈斜褍褌泻懈 褌邪 褍褌懈褏芯屑懈褉褞胁邪谢懈 锌褉懈谐薪芯斜谢械薪械 薪邪褋械谢械薪薪褟 泻芯谢芯薪褨泄.
袩芯锌褉懈 褨褋褌芯褉褨褞 薪邪褉泻芯褌懈泻褨胁 胁褨写 锌芯胁褋褞写薪芯谐芯 胁卸懈褌泻褍 写芯 蟹邪斜芯褉芯薪懈, 蟹邪褉邪蟹 屑懈 薪邪 褏胁懈谢褨 胁褨写薪芯胁谢械薪薪褟 谢芯褟谢褜薪芯褋褌褨 写芯 "褋谢邪斜泻懈褏" 薪邪褉泻芯褌懈泻褨胁. 袉褖械 300 褉芯泻褨胁 褌芯屑褍 泻邪胁邪 褔懈 褌褞褌褞薪 斜褍谢懈 褌械卸 褋褍锌械褉械褔谢懈胁懈屑懈 褉械褔芯胁懈薪邪屑懈, 褨薪芯写褨 薪邪胁褨褌褜 蟹邪斜芯褉芯薪械薪懈屑懈 "蟹邪褋芯斜邪屑懈 薪邪褋芯谢芯写懈". 袩褉芯褌械 褍 褋胁褨泄 褔邪褋 褋褍褋锌褨谢褜褋褌胁芯 褨 写械褉卸邪胁邪 胁懈褉褨褕懈谢懈 蟹邪屑褨褋褌褜 蟹邪斜芯褉芯薪懈 芯锌芯写邪褌泻芯胁褍胁邪褌懈 褑褨 锌褉芯写褍泻褌懈. 孝芯卸 胁懈写邪褦褌褜褋褟, 褖芯 谐邪褕懈褕 褌邪 芯锌褨泄 屑芯卸褍褌褜 胁 屑邪泄斜褍褌薪褜芯屑褍 褋褌邪褌懈 褌邪泻懈屑懈 卸 谢械谐邪谢褜薪懈屑懈, 褟泻 褍 褋胁褨泄 褔邪褋 褌褞褌褞薪 褌邪 泻邪胁邪.孝芯斜褌芯 褩褏薪褟 蟹邪斜芯褉芯薪邪 褋锌褉懈褔懈薪褟褦 斜褨谢褜褕懈泄 褋芯褑褨邪谢褜薪懈泄 薪械褋锌芯泻褨泄, 薪褨卸 泻芯薪褌褉芯谢褜芯胁邪薪邪 谢械谐邪谢褨蟹邪褑褨褟. "泻褍褉褨薪薪褟 褌邪 械泻褋锌邪薪褋褨褟 褋锌芯卸懈胁邪薪薪褟 褋谢邪斜泻懈褏 薪邪褉泻芯褌懈泻褨胁 - 褑械 写胁邪 胁薪褍褌褉褨褕薪褜芯 锌芯胁'褟蟹邪薪懈褏 锌褉芯褑械褋懈".
"褌邪泻 褋邪屑芯, 褟泻 褍 XVII 褋褌芯谢褨褌褌褨 褋锌褉芯斜懈 蟹邪斜芯褉芯薪懈褌懈 泻邪胁褍 泄 褌褞褌褞薪 褋懈屑胁芯谢褨蟹褍胁邪谢懈 芯褋褌邪薪薪褨 斜邪褌邪谢褨褩 褋械褉械写薪褜芯胁褨褔薪芯谐芯 褋胁褨褌芯谐谢褟写褍 (褟泻懈泄 褑褨谢泻芯屑 褋锌褉邪胁械写谢懈胁芯 蟹邪褔褍胁 褍 薪芯胁懈褏 "蟹邪褋芯斜邪褏 薪邪褋芯谢芯写懈" 屑芯写械褉薪褍 斜褍褉卸褍邪蟹薪褍 写懈薪邪屑褨泻褍), 褌邪泻 褨 褋褜芯谐芯写薪褨 褖械 薪邪褟胁薪褨 蟹邪斜芯褉芯薪懈 薪邪褉泻芯褌懈泻褨胁 屑芯卸薪邪 褌谢褍屑邪褔懈褌懈 褟泻 芯褋褌邪薪薪褞 斜懈褌胁褍 斜褍褉卸褍邪蟹薪芯褩 褉邪褑褨芯薪邪谢褜薪芯褋褌褨 褌邪 褋邪屑芯写懈褋褑懈锌谢褨薪懈."
效芯谐芯 屑械薪褨 斜褉邪泻褍胁邪谢芯 胁 褑褨泄 泻薪懈蟹褨?
袩褉芯 锌褉褟薪芯褖褨 写褍卸械 屑邪谢芯 褉芯蟹泻邪蟹邪薪芯, 薪邪 卸邪谢褜. 袉 写褍卸械 褏芯褌褨谢芯褋褟 斜, 蟹胁褨褋薪芯, 褌芯褔泻褍 蟹芯褉褍 斜褨芯谢芯谐褨胁 械胁芯谢褞褑褨芯薪褨褋褌褨胁 锌褉芯 褉褨蟹薪褨 锌芯胁械写褨薪泻芯胁褨 芯褋芯斜谢懈胁芯褋褌褨, 锌芯胁'褟蟹邪薪褨 褨蟹 褌懈屑 褋邪屑懈屑 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢械屑, 薪邪 锌褉懈泻谢邪写.
May 28, 2018
袩褨蟹薪邪胁邪谢褜薪邪 褨褋褌芯褉褨褟, 泻薪懈谐邪 褋褎芯褉屑芯胁邪薪邪 蟹 褎邪泻褌褨胁 锌褉芯 褟泻褨 褌芯斜褨 褌芯褔薪芯 薪械 褉芯蟹锌芯胁褨写邪谢懈 胁 褕泻芯谢褨. 袗胁褌芯褉 褉芯蟹谐谢褟写邪褦 胁锌谢懈胁 褋锌械褑褨泄, 泻邪胁懈, 褔邪褞, 褌褞褌褞薪褍, 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褞 褌邪 薪邪胁褨褌褜 芯锌褨褍屑褍 薪械 谢懈褕械 薪邪 蟹邪谐邪谢褜薪芯胁褨写芯屑褨 褌械薪写械薪褑褨褩 褋锌芯卸懈胁邪薪薪褟, 邪谢械 泄 褉芯蟹泻褉懈胁邪褦 褩褏 褟泻 蟹邪褋芯斜懈 泻谢邪褋芯胁芯褩 褉械锌褉械蟹械薪褌邪褑褨褩. 校 写芯褋谢褨写卸械薪薪褨 泄写械 屑芯胁邪 锌褉芯 褌芯胁邪褉懈, 褖芯 薪械 斜褍谢懈 (褦) 锌褉芯写褍泻褌邪屑懈 锌械褉褕芯褩 薪械芯斜褏褨写薪芯褋褌褨, 邪谢械 薪邪斜褍谢懈 褌邪泻芯褩 锌芯锌褍谢褟褉薪芯褋褌褨, 褖芯 薪邪 写芯胁谐懈泄 褔邪褋 褋褌邪谢懈 芯褋薪芯胁薪懈屑 锌褉械写屑械褌芯屑 褌芯褉谐褨胁谢褨. 笑褨泻邪胁芯, 褖芯 邪胁褌芯褉 邪薪邪谢褨蟹褍褦 屑褨褉褍 锌褉懈褔械褌薪芯褋褌褨 卸褨薪泻懈 写芯 锌芯褋褌褍锌褍 褑懈褏 锌褉芯写褍泻褌褨胁. 袙屑褨褖械薪芯 斜械蟹谢褨褔 褨谢褞褋褌褉邪褑褨泄-褉械锌褉芯写褍泻褑褨泄 锌芯谢芯褌械薪 褨 锌谢邪泻邪褌褨胁.
效懈褌邪褌懈 谐褍屑邪薪褨褌邪褉褨褟屑
8,5 蟹 10
效懈褌邪褌懈 谐褍屑邪薪褨褌邪褉褨褟屑
8,5 蟹 10
May 15, 2025
Keyif veren maddelerin k眉lt眉rel, tarihsel ve felsefi yolculu臒una 谋艧谋k tutan hem bilgilendirici hem de son derece keyifli bir kitap. Wolfgang Schivelbusch kahveden t眉t眉ne, 莽ikolatadan alkole uzanan geni艧 bir yelpazeyi ele al谋rken, bu maddelerin tarih boyunca nas谋l toplumsal anlamlar kazand谋臒谋n谋, nas谋l de臒i艧imler ya艧ad谋臒谋n谋 ustal谋kla anlat谋yor. Akademik bir titizlikle yaz谋lm谋艧 olmas谋na ra臒men hi莽 a臒谋rla艧mayan dili sayesinde zevkle okunuyor.
June 17, 2023
袘褍谢芯 褑褨泻邪胁芯. 袨褋芯斜谢懈胁芯 褌械, 褟泻 胁褋械 蟹屑褨薪褞褦褌褜褋褟 蟹 褔邪褋芯屑 (褟 褖芯写芯 褋屑邪泻褨胁). 袉 褌械, 褖芯 泻芯谢懈褋褜 斜褍谢芯 蟹邪斜芯褉芯薪芯褞/写芯褉芯卸薪械褔械褞, 蟹 褔邪褋芯屑 褋褌邪褦 薪芯褉屑芯褞/胁褋械写芯褋褌褍锌薪褨褋褌褞. 袙褨写 锌械褉褑褞 写芯 屑邪褉懈褏褍邪薪懈, 胁褨写 褋锌械褑褨泄 写芯 芯锌褨褍屑褍. 袧邪泄斜褨谢褜褕械 褋锌芯写芯斜邪谢邪褋褜 褔邪褋褌懈薪邪 泻薪懈谐懈 锌褉芯 褏邪褉褔芯胁褨 褋屑邪泻懈
October 12, 2021
This is great, explains so many of our licit and illicit pleasures
October 11, 2017
**This review has been adapted from a reflective essay I wrote for my Modern World Civilization class**
Spices and stimulants that are commonplace to twenty-first century Westerners were considered luxury items in medieval times and the early modern era: pepper, chocolate, tea, coffee, tobacco, and opium. I was surprised to read in Tastes of Paradise about the various controversies surrounding most of these items- who would have thought that chocolate and coffee had negative connotations and superstitions surrounding them? Even politics and the overall culture of a country played a part in who was able to enjoy these delicious bits of happiness.
Spices were used in medieval times in medicinal preparations and as social clues to denote a household鈥檚 rank in the social hierarchy: 鈥淭he higher the rank of a household, the greater its use of spices鈥� (4). In addition to being consumed in great quantities, spices were given as gifts between members of the nobility and sometimes used in lieu of cash payments (7). The long journey from India to Europe increased spices鈥� monetary value and added to spices鈥� allure as 鈥渆missaries from a fabled world鈥� (6), especially in a time where very few Europeans traveled outside of their native homeland. The nobility and elite of Europe also used spices as a way to separate themselves from their common subjects- the poor souls who could not afford the expense of spices and whose status in the social hierarchy could not be 鈥渢asted鈥� or shown to others (7).
The use of spices by the European elite paralleled the elite鈥檚 new focus on 鈥渟tyle鈥�- clothes, home furnishings, etc.- all of which were supplied through Arabic traders throughout the Orient. The author compares the early modern era dependence on Arabic spice trading with the modern Western world鈥檚 dependence on Arab oil in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries (9)- which brought to my mind the quote: 鈥渢he more things change, the more they stay the same. Eventually the middle class in Europe expanded along with the demand for spices as the expanding middle class tried to emulate their wealthier contemporaries (10-11). High demand, high tariffs, and high prices along with increased understanding of sailing technology prompted European explorers (and their wealthy investors) to search for a direct sea route to India (10-11). By cutting out the Arabic traders/middlemen, Europeans hoped to decrease the prices of spices while keeping up with demand on the Continent: 鈥淲hoever controlled pepper would essentially control the purse-strings of a continent鈥� (11-12).
Views on alcohol in Europe swung from one extreme to the other from medieval time to the age of encounter. In medieval times alcohol, especially beer, was consumed daily 鈥渁s the main source of nourishment for most central European and northern Europeans (22). Daily consumption started with beer soup for breakfast and continued throughout the day. Alcoholic beverages were also heavily consumed during special occasions and holidays. The common consumption of alcohol mixed with obligatory social drinking rites meant that intoxication was rampant. Intoxication was considered normalized behavior until the Protestant Reformation redefined man鈥檚 relationship with God and, by extension, alcohol (31).
While Protestant attitudes towards alcohol were changing, coffee was becoming readily available as a substitute for alcohol. While alcohol numbed one to the miseries of life, the caffeine in coffee encouraged sobriety (35), increased efficiency and energy (39), and was believed to curb sexual libido (37): 鈥淚t marked the start of the working day, formally putting an end to the night鈥檚 rest, and making its drinkers alert and cheerful for the day ahead鈥� (63). Energy and efficiency were core virtues of the Protestant work ethic, thus, coffee became a popular non-alcoholic beverage in the Protestant-dominant countries of England and Germany.
While chocolate is a beloved ingredient around the world now, chocolate was imported from the New World into predominantly Catholic countries such as Italy and Spain. Chocolate was originally used by the Spanish clergy as a 鈥渇asting drink鈥� (91) during religious holidays but it soon became a status symbol of the aristocracy (91). When chocolate entered the world of the aristocracy it was a rich, sumptuous breakfast beverage that 鈥渃reated an intermediary state between lying down and sitting up鈥� (91). Chocolate was the antithesis to coffee: it relaxed the body, was high in calories, and believed to be an aphrodisiac (perhaps that is why chocolate is a traditional Valentine鈥檚 Day gift?) (92). The status of chocolate declined in the nineteenth century as its popularity rose among the middle class: 鈥淭he former status drink of the ancient r茅gime had sunk to world of women and children. What formerly symbolized power and glory was now in the hands of those excluded from power and responsibility in middle-class society鈥� (93).
The Columbian exchange brought tobacco and its new way of consumption (smoking) to Europe during the Era of Encounter. Originally tobacco use was referred to as 鈥渄rinking smoke鈥� or 鈥渄rinking tobacco鈥� since European cultures had no point of reference or name for this new recreational habit: 鈥淭he analogy with drinking was thus first a conceptual aid for grasping an otherwise bewildering novelty鈥� (97). The medical view of tobacco was similar to that of alcohol: it dulled the senses, thought to be an anti-erotic agent, and first-time use could be an unpleasant experience. Since smoking calmed the nerves, the rituals around smoking tobacco focused on preparing one鈥檚 mental activity and concentration.
As each smoking process (pipe, cigar, cigarette, etc.) grew in popularity, the actual time spent on smoking and its accompanying rituals decreased (111). Schivelbusch theorizes that the modes and amount of smoking in a society reveal that society鈥檚 鈥渟tandards of tranquility and concentration鈥� (115) and 鈥渄emonstrates to what depth the culture is permeated by nervousness鈥� (129). I thought this was an intriguing correlation. Often attributed to world events, social factors, or personality traits, anxiety seems to be at an all-time high in American society. What if American anxiety levels are so high because Americans are smoking less? If this is true, it is a terrible trade-off though- smoke now and be calm, die of lung cancer later.
Opium was a commonly prescribed painkiller in the nineteenth century and used for a variety of mild or easily treatable medical conditions. Opium was the drug of choice of for poets, artists, and writers since it infused their artwork and writings with a dreamlike quality. Society viewed the lone wolf tendencies and mindsets of these artists and writers as dangerous: 鈥淚t was the asocial significance attributed by poets to opium and hashish which first caused them to lose their identity as ordinary household remedies鈥� (210). Awareness of the negative consequences of addiction due to the post-war morphine addicts of the various nineteenth century wars stripped away the glamor and appeal of opium.
Another habit that was frowned upon by the upper and middle classes was the excessive consumption of distilled spirits (hard liquor). Of course, the definition of excessive consumption is subjective; what the upper and middle classes thought of as distasteful was the source of bonding among members of the lower working classes: 鈥淒rink and drunkenness carried no social stigma; on the contrary, they were almost a symbol of class identity鈥� (149). The working classes consumed their alcohol in loud, public places while middle class drinking subscribed to a more moderate mindset: 鈥淭he middle-class citizen drank moderately, and he drank in a private circle鈥� (148). Excessive drinking was also a form of escapism for the lower working classes- industrialization increased the physical and mental energy expected of workers without an appropriate increase in pay or rest. Many urban workers had migrated from the countryside for economic opportunity only to find themselves living in squalid living conditions and without the financial and emotional support of their extended family network.
Like spices, liquor was originally used in medicinal preparations but it was also used in the military as part of a soldier鈥檚 rations before finding its way into civilian life during the Industrial Revolution. 鈥淟iquor鈥� created new qualities of alcoholic inebriation, just as coffee created new qualities of sobriety. The polarity of these effects was reflected in the polarity of the two classes that adopted these drinks鈥� (152). Liquor sped up the inebriation process which Schivelbusch parallels to the 鈥減rocesses of acceleration of the modern age鈥� (153). Wine and beer were looked upon more favorably (by the upper classes) as acceptable forms of alcohol for the lower classes- these drinks kept the social and political bonds alive for the working masses without the constant and debilitating drunkenness (165).
After reading this book it is my opinion that coffee had the most positive effect on Europe and world history (personally, I am a chocoholic so this was hard to admit). Coffee consumption increases a person鈥檚 physical energy level and mental prowess (temporarily). Increased physical and mental energy was needed in the Industrial Revolution to increase efficiency, production, and consumption. Coffee also contributed to the field of journalism, discourse, and free thought- coffeehouses were the precursors to newspapers and were available to the common man, although, unfortunately, not to the common woman (57). Although coffee consumption eventually moved to the domestic sphere, newspapers, literature, and journalism stayed in the public sphere and contributed to the Western ideals of free speech and free thought.
You can read more of my reviews at:
Spices and stimulants that are commonplace to twenty-first century Westerners were considered luxury items in medieval times and the early modern era: pepper, chocolate, tea, coffee, tobacco, and opium. I was surprised to read in Tastes of Paradise about the various controversies surrounding most of these items- who would have thought that chocolate and coffee had negative connotations and superstitions surrounding them? Even politics and the overall culture of a country played a part in who was able to enjoy these delicious bits of happiness.
Spices were used in medieval times in medicinal preparations and as social clues to denote a household鈥檚 rank in the social hierarchy: 鈥淭he higher the rank of a household, the greater its use of spices鈥� (4). In addition to being consumed in great quantities, spices were given as gifts between members of the nobility and sometimes used in lieu of cash payments (7). The long journey from India to Europe increased spices鈥� monetary value and added to spices鈥� allure as 鈥渆missaries from a fabled world鈥� (6), especially in a time where very few Europeans traveled outside of their native homeland. The nobility and elite of Europe also used spices as a way to separate themselves from their common subjects- the poor souls who could not afford the expense of spices and whose status in the social hierarchy could not be 鈥渢asted鈥� or shown to others (7).
The use of spices by the European elite paralleled the elite鈥檚 new focus on 鈥渟tyle鈥�- clothes, home furnishings, etc.- all of which were supplied through Arabic traders throughout the Orient. The author compares the early modern era dependence on Arabic spice trading with the modern Western world鈥檚 dependence on Arab oil in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries (9)- which brought to my mind the quote: 鈥渢he more things change, the more they stay the same. Eventually the middle class in Europe expanded along with the demand for spices as the expanding middle class tried to emulate their wealthier contemporaries (10-11). High demand, high tariffs, and high prices along with increased understanding of sailing technology prompted European explorers (and their wealthy investors) to search for a direct sea route to India (10-11). By cutting out the Arabic traders/middlemen, Europeans hoped to decrease the prices of spices while keeping up with demand on the Continent: 鈥淲hoever controlled pepper would essentially control the purse-strings of a continent鈥� (11-12).
Views on alcohol in Europe swung from one extreme to the other from medieval time to the age of encounter. In medieval times alcohol, especially beer, was consumed daily 鈥渁s the main source of nourishment for most central European and northern Europeans (22). Daily consumption started with beer soup for breakfast and continued throughout the day. Alcoholic beverages were also heavily consumed during special occasions and holidays. The common consumption of alcohol mixed with obligatory social drinking rites meant that intoxication was rampant. Intoxication was considered normalized behavior until the Protestant Reformation redefined man鈥檚 relationship with God and, by extension, alcohol (31).
While Protestant attitudes towards alcohol were changing, coffee was becoming readily available as a substitute for alcohol. While alcohol numbed one to the miseries of life, the caffeine in coffee encouraged sobriety (35), increased efficiency and energy (39), and was believed to curb sexual libido (37): 鈥淚t marked the start of the working day, formally putting an end to the night鈥檚 rest, and making its drinkers alert and cheerful for the day ahead鈥� (63). Energy and efficiency were core virtues of the Protestant work ethic, thus, coffee became a popular non-alcoholic beverage in the Protestant-dominant countries of England and Germany.
While chocolate is a beloved ingredient around the world now, chocolate was imported from the New World into predominantly Catholic countries such as Italy and Spain. Chocolate was originally used by the Spanish clergy as a 鈥渇asting drink鈥� (91) during religious holidays but it soon became a status symbol of the aristocracy (91). When chocolate entered the world of the aristocracy it was a rich, sumptuous breakfast beverage that 鈥渃reated an intermediary state between lying down and sitting up鈥� (91). Chocolate was the antithesis to coffee: it relaxed the body, was high in calories, and believed to be an aphrodisiac (perhaps that is why chocolate is a traditional Valentine鈥檚 Day gift?) (92). The status of chocolate declined in the nineteenth century as its popularity rose among the middle class: 鈥淭he former status drink of the ancient r茅gime had sunk to world of women and children. What formerly symbolized power and glory was now in the hands of those excluded from power and responsibility in middle-class society鈥� (93).
The Columbian exchange brought tobacco and its new way of consumption (smoking) to Europe during the Era of Encounter. Originally tobacco use was referred to as 鈥渄rinking smoke鈥� or 鈥渄rinking tobacco鈥� since European cultures had no point of reference or name for this new recreational habit: 鈥淭he analogy with drinking was thus first a conceptual aid for grasping an otherwise bewildering novelty鈥� (97). The medical view of tobacco was similar to that of alcohol: it dulled the senses, thought to be an anti-erotic agent, and first-time use could be an unpleasant experience. Since smoking calmed the nerves, the rituals around smoking tobacco focused on preparing one鈥檚 mental activity and concentration.
As each smoking process (pipe, cigar, cigarette, etc.) grew in popularity, the actual time spent on smoking and its accompanying rituals decreased (111). Schivelbusch theorizes that the modes and amount of smoking in a society reveal that society鈥檚 鈥渟tandards of tranquility and concentration鈥� (115) and 鈥渄emonstrates to what depth the culture is permeated by nervousness鈥� (129). I thought this was an intriguing correlation. Often attributed to world events, social factors, or personality traits, anxiety seems to be at an all-time high in American society. What if American anxiety levels are so high because Americans are smoking less? If this is true, it is a terrible trade-off though- smoke now and be calm, die of lung cancer later.
Opium was a commonly prescribed painkiller in the nineteenth century and used for a variety of mild or easily treatable medical conditions. Opium was the drug of choice of for poets, artists, and writers since it infused their artwork and writings with a dreamlike quality. Society viewed the lone wolf tendencies and mindsets of these artists and writers as dangerous: 鈥淚t was the asocial significance attributed by poets to opium and hashish which first caused them to lose their identity as ordinary household remedies鈥� (210). Awareness of the negative consequences of addiction due to the post-war morphine addicts of the various nineteenth century wars stripped away the glamor and appeal of opium.
Another habit that was frowned upon by the upper and middle classes was the excessive consumption of distilled spirits (hard liquor). Of course, the definition of excessive consumption is subjective; what the upper and middle classes thought of as distasteful was the source of bonding among members of the lower working classes: 鈥淒rink and drunkenness carried no social stigma; on the contrary, they were almost a symbol of class identity鈥� (149). The working classes consumed their alcohol in loud, public places while middle class drinking subscribed to a more moderate mindset: 鈥淭he middle-class citizen drank moderately, and he drank in a private circle鈥� (148). Excessive drinking was also a form of escapism for the lower working classes- industrialization increased the physical and mental energy expected of workers without an appropriate increase in pay or rest. Many urban workers had migrated from the countryside for economic opportunity only to find themselves living in squalid living conditions and without the financial and emotional support of their extended family network.
Like spices, liquor was originally used in medicinal preparations but it was also used in the military as part of a soldier鈥檚 rations before finding its way into civilian life during the Industrial Revolution. 鈥淟iquor鈥� created new qualities of alcoholic inebriation, just as coffee created new qualities of sobriety. The polarity of these effects was reflected in the polarity of the two classes that adopted these drinks鈥� (152). Liquor sped up the inebriation process which Schivelbusch parallels to the 鈥減rocesses of acceleration of the modern age鈥� (153). Wine and beer were looked upon more favorably (by the upper classes) as acceptable forms of alcohol for the lower classes- these drinks kept the social and political bonds alive for the working masses without the constant and debilitating drunkenness (165).
After reading this book it is my opinion that coffee had the most positive effect on Europe and world history (personally, I am a chocoholic so this was hard to admit). Coffee consumption increases a person鈥檚 physical energy level and mental prowess (temporarily). Increased physical and mental energy was needed in the Industrial Revolution to increase efficiency, production, and consumption. Coffee also contributed to the field of journalism, discourse, and free thought- coffeehouses were the precursors to newspapers and were available to the common man, although, unfortunately, not to the common woman (57). Although coffee consumption eventually moved to the domestic sphere, newspapers, literature, and journalism stayed in the public sphere and contributed to the Western ideals of free speech and free thought.
You can read more of my reviews at:
August 16, 2023
笑褨泻邪胁邪, 蟹邪褏芯锌谢褞褞褔邪, 薪邪锌芯胁薪械薪邪 褎邪泻褌邪屑懈 泻薪懈谐邪. 袆写懈薪邪 褩褩 锌褉芯斜谢械屑邪 胁 褌芯屑褍, 褖芯 胁芯薪邪 袆胁褉芯褑械薪褌褉懈褔薪邪. 袛胁邪 邪斜蟹邪褑懈 锌褉芯 袩褨胁薪褨褔薪褍 袗屑械褉懈泻褍, 褨 写胁邪 锌褉芯 袗蟹褨褞. 袦邪泄卸械 薪褨 褋谢芯胁邪 锌褉芯 袗褎褉懈泻褍, 袗胁褋褌褉邪谢褨褞, 褌邪 写褍卸械 斜邪谐邪褌芯 褉褨蟹薪懈褏 褌芯褔芯泻 褋胁褨褌褍, 锌褉芯 褟泻褨 斜褍谢芯 斜 褑褨泻邪胁芯 锌芯褔褍褌懈. 袟写械斜褨谢褜褕芯谐芯 胁褋械 锌褉芯 芦袟邪褏褨写薪懈泄 褋胁褨褌禄, 褖芯 褉芯斜懈褌褜 褩褩 写谢褟 袆胁褉芯锌械泄褋褜泻芯谐芯 褔懈褌邪褔邪 屑褨褋褑褟屑懈 薪褍写薪芯褞 褨 锌褉懈屑褨褌懈胁薪芯褞.
April 8, 2019
Kitab谋n ad谋 keyif verici maddelerin avrupadaki tarihi olsaym谋艧 daha uygun olurmu艧. Daha geni艧 bir co臒rafya ya da daha ayr谋nt谋l谋 bilgi arayanlar i莽in hayal k谋r谋kl谋臒谋 olabilir. Bunun d谋艧谋nda okumas谋 kolay yer yer ilgin莽 bilgiler olan bir eser.
May 2, 2024
If we all only drank ale again, the world would be a better place I think
November 3, 2021
A remarkably erudite and entertaining book tracing the impact of stimulants on civilization through the ages. The book alternates between anecdote and bigger picture themes while navigating the history of coffee, chocolate, tobacco and (briefly) drugs. There are also chapters on drinking places and eating rituals that seem rather off-topic but are nonetheless interesting.
The author's delight in the small and mundane is infectious. He has also collected an impressive set of historic illustrations, comic strips, ads and artifacts to accompany his story.
The only downside might be that the translation seems a little choppy at times but otherwise this is a charming book.
The author's delight in the small and mundane is infectious. He has also collected an impressive set of historic illustrations, comic strips, ads and artifacts to accompany his story.
The only downside might be that the translation seems a little choppy at times but otherwise this is a charming book.
July 5, 2020
Kendini okutan g眉zel bir pop眉ler tarih kitab谋 ya da asl谋nda 艧i艧irilmi艧 bir bro艧眉r. 脟eviri iyiydi ama K谋rm谋z谋 Kedi yay谋nlar谋n谋n bask谋s谋 bir felaket. K枚t眉 mizanpaj, 枚zensizce yerle艧tirilmi艧 g枚rseller.
Yazar kahve, 莽ay, kakao, bira, lik枚r, afyon gibi maddelerin 17. y眉zy谋ldan ba艧layarak Avrupa鈥檇aki t眉ketilme tarzlar谋n谋, bu tarzlar谋n s谋n谋fsal anlam谋n谋 g眉zel anekdotlarla a莽谋kl谋yor.
Yazar kahve, 莽ay, kakao, bira, lik枚r, afyon gibi maddelerin 17. y眉zy谋ldan ba艧layarak Avrupa鈥檇aki t眉ketilme tarzlar谋n谋, bu tarzlar谋n s谋n谋fsal anlam谋n谋 g眉zel anekdotlarla a莽谋kl谋yor.
March 4, 2022
This terrifically enjoyable little history of what its author calls Genussmittel 鈥� 鈥渁rticles of pleasure鈥� 鈥� was given to me as a gift years ago, but I never got around to it until earlier this year. (Sorry, Heather!) It was absolutely worth the wait; while slight at 237 pages, it鈥檚 also richly illustrated with period art that actually enhances the text nicely, and it鈥檚 got a surprisingly rich depth of research and sourcing. Essentially, it examines the social, cultural, and political impact that spices, coffee, drinking chocolate, tobacco, alcohol, and other quasi-vices had on their arrival in Europe. It鈥檚 one of the most enjoyable such social histories I鈥檝e read in ages, and I can see why it鈥檚 stayed in print for so long.
Tastes of Paradise was written in 1980 by German social scientist Wolfgang Schivelbusch, and updated in 1992, at which time the growing moral panic over drug abuse puts its chapter on opium and other narcotics into a fascinating new light. Schivelbusch isn鈥檛 a traditional historian, but rather a social scientist who focuses on an approach known as 鈥渉istory of mentalities鈥�, which traces what people thought and how they categorized things at the time. Thus we learn not a dry recitation of the social changes wrought by these imports from Asia, but how ordinary people treated them within the context of the period.
While not a Marxist ideologue, Schivelbusch is at least a European intellectual, meaning that he doesn鈥檛 shy away from discussing the class implications of the subject, nor is he shy about using the word 鈥渃apitalism鈥� both correctly and with judgment. For example, he makes a tremendously convincing argument about how coffee was an instrument of bourgeoisification, acting as a non-intoxicating stimulant that perfectly matched the desire increased productivity, and there鈥檚 an entire chapter on the struggles among early socialist thinkers over whether or not the working class should be allowed to consume alcohol.
The book was written too soon to make certain comparisons, but reading it from the vantage point of 2022, some of them seem inescapable. One common aspect of all these imports is that they were initially luxuries: They cost a lot of money and effort to import, they came with their own peripheral industries (such as the making of costly serving implements for coffee), and they provided a means of conspicuous consumption for elites as the wealth gap between them and the working class grew ever greater. It鈥檚 hard to read this today and not think of other frivolous expenditures today, such as cryptocurrency.
Well-written, slyly funny, full of solid history and strong class analysis, Tastes of Paradise is a book I鈥檇 highly recommend. It鈥檚 also incredibly engaging just for the curious revelations the reader will discover, from the status of beer as both a drink and a food to the gendered nature of coffee and cigarettes to how hard liquor literally and figuratively lubricated the industrial revolution. But I won鈥檛 deprive you of the pleasure of learning all this for yourself 鈥� pick up this delightful history and be amazed.
Tastes of Paradise was written in 1980 by German social scientist Wolfgang Schivelbusch, and updated in 1992, at which time the growing moral panic over drug abuse puts its chapter on opium and other narcotics into a fascinating new light. Schivelbusch isn鈥檛 a traditional historian, but rather a social scientist who focuses on an approach known as 鈥渉istory of mentalities鈥�, which traces what people thought and how they categorized things at the time. Thus we learn not a dry recitation of the social changes wrought by these imports from Asia, but how ordinary people treated them within the context of the period.
While not a Marxist ideologue, Schivelbusch is at least a European intellectual, meaning that he doesn鈥檛 shy away from discussing the class implications of the subject, nor is he shy about using the word 鈥渃apitalism鈥� both correctly and with judgment. For example, he makes a tremendously convincing argument about how coffee was an instrument of bourgeoisification, acting as a non-intoxicating stimulant that perfectly matched the desire increased productivity, and there鈥檚 an entire chapter on the struggles among early socialist thinkers over whether or not the working class should be allowed to consume alcohol.
The book was written too soon to make certain comparisons, but reading it from the vantage point of 2022, some of them seem inescapable. One common aspect of all these imports is that they were initially luxuries: They cost a lot of money and effort to import, they came with their own peripheral industries (such as the making of costly serving implements for coffee), and they provided a means of conspicuous consumption for elites as the wealth gap between them and the working class grew ever greater. It鈥檚 hard to read this today and not think of other frivolous expenditures today, such as cryptocurrency.
Well-written, slyly funny, full of solid history and strong class analysis, Tastes of Paradise is a book I鈥檇 highly recommend. It鈥檚 also incredibly engaging just for the curious revelations the reader will discover, from the status of beer as both a drink and a food to the gendered nature of coffee and cigarettes to how hard liquor literally and figuratively lubricated the industrial revolution. But I won鈥檛 deprive you of the pleasure of learning all this for yourself 鈥� pick up this delightful history and be amazed.
March 22, 2016
袦械薪褨 褋锌芯写芯斜邪谢邪褋褜 泻薪懈卸泻邪 锌褉芯 褨褋褌芯褉褨褞 褋褍褔邪褋薪懈褏 芯锌褨褍屑褨胁 屑懈薪褍谢芯谐芯. 携泻褖芯 褏芯褔械褌械 蟹薪邪褌懈 褔芯屑褍 褕芯泻芯谢邪写, 泻邪胁邪, 褌褞褌褞薪, 褔邪泄 锌褉懈泄褕谢懈 写芯 薪邪褋, 褌邪 胁褨写薪芯褕械薪薪褟 写芯 薪懈褏 褋械褉械写 谢褞写械泄 褌芯谐芯 褔邪褋褍 鈥� 褉邪写卸褍 褔懈褌邪褌懈. 袩褉懈 褑褜芯屑褍, 褖芯 褔懈褌邪褦褌褜褋褟 褑褟 泻薪懈卸泻邪 谢械谐泻芯, 褌邪 褦 斜邪谐邪褌芯 蟹芯斜褉邪卸械薪褜. 效械褉械蟹 褉芯泻褨胁 褌邪泻 褌褉懈 薪械锌芯谐邪薪芯 斜 褖械 褉邪蟹 锌械褉械褔懈褌邪褌懈. ;)
February 24, 2020
Nerdeyse hepimizin hayat谋nda en az biri etkili olan 莽ay,莽ikolata,kahve,t眉t眉n gibi keyif verici maddelerin tarihini,t眉ketim k眉lt眉r眉n眉 ve s谋n谋flar谋n ideolojik taleplerine olan cevab谋n谋 okumak,anlamaya 莽al谋艧mak inan谋lmaz ufuk a莽谋c谋 bir deneyimdi . Kitapta kullan谋lan tablolar , grav眉rler ve reklam afi艧leri de anlat谋y谋 olduk莽a zenginle艧tirmi艧ti. Herkese tavsiye ederim .
September 14, 2020
袣谢邪褋薪邪! 袨褋芯斜谢懈胁芯 褍 褉芯蟹褉褨蟹褨 褨褋褌芯褉褨褩 褌邪 褉芯蟹胁懈褌泻褍 褋褍褋锌褨谢褜褋褌胁邪. 袘邪谐邪褌芯 褖芯 写褨蟹薪邪谢邪褋褟, 褔懈褌邪谢邪 蟹 褨薪褌械褉械褋芯屑. 袛械褖芯 薪械蟹胁懈褔薪懈泄 锌械褉械泻谢邪写 挟褉泻邪 袩褉芯褏邪褋褜泻邪 褍 屑芯褦屑褍 胁懈写邪薪薪褨, 邪谢械 蟹 褔邪褋芯屑 屑芯卸薪邪 胁褌褟谐薪褍褌懈褋褟. 袙褋褌邪胁泻懈 泻邪褉褌懈薪芯泻 锌芯褋械褉械写 褌械泻褋褌褍 薪褨锌褉邪褖褍, 写褍卸械 写褉邪褌褍胁邪谢懈 胁褋械薪褜泻懈泄 褔邪褋.
August 29, 2020
小芯褑褨邪谢褜薪邪 褨褋褌芯褉褨褟 蟹写械斜褨谢褜褕芯谐芯 泻芯谢芯薪褨邪谢褜薪懈褏 褌芯胁邪褉褨胁, 褟泻褨 锌芯褌褉邪锌懈谢懈 褍 袆胁褉芯锌褍 锌芯褔懈薪邪褞褔懈 胁褨写 17 褋褌芯谢褨褌褌褟, 褋褞写懈 胁褏芯写褟褌褜 褋锌械褑褨褩, 褔邪泄, 泻邪胁邪, 褕芯泻芯谢邪写, 褌褞褌褞薪, 谐芯褉褨谢泻邪 褨 芯锌褨泄. 笑褨泻邪胁芯 芯锌懈褋褍褦褌褜褋褟 褌械, 褟泻 薪芯胁褨 褋屑邪泻懈 锌褉懈卸懈胁邪谢懈褋褟 胁 袆胁褉芯锌褨, 褋锌械褉褕褍 斜褍写褍褔懈 写芯褋褌褍锌薪懈屑懈 谢懈褕械 写谢褟 邪褉懈褋褌芯泻褉邪褌褨褩, 邪 蟹谐芯写芯屑 褋褌邪胁褕懈 屑邪褋芯胁懈屑懈 褨 蟹屑褨薪懈胁褕懈 泻褍谢褜褌褍褉褍 胁 褑褨谢芯屑褍. 袣褍谢褜褌褍褉邪 褋锌芯卸懈胁邪薪薪褟 泻邪胁懈 褋褌胁芯褉懈谢邪 薪芯胁褨 锌褉袨褋褌芯褉懈 褍 袆胁褉芯锌褨, 薪邪 胁褨写屑褨薪褍 胁褨写 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褜薪懈褏 褌邪胁械褉薪, 泻邪胁'褟褉薪褨 斜褍谢懈 屑褨褋褑械屑 褌胁械褉械蟹芯褋褌褨 褨 蟹芯胁褋褨屑 褨薪褕芯谐芯 锌褉芯胁械写械薪薪褟 写芯蟹胁褨谢谢褟, 褖芯 胁 褑褨谢芯屑褍 胁锌谢懈胁邪谢芯 薪邪 泻褍谢褜褌褍褉褍 锌褉芯胁械写械薪薪褟 褔邪褋褍. 孝邪泻芯卸 邪胁褌芯褉 蟹芯褋械褉械写卸褍褦褌褜褋褟 薪邪 褌懈褏 褋芯褑褨邪谢褜薪懈褏 邪褋锌械泻褌邪褏, 褟泻褨 锌芯胁'褟蟹邪薪褨 褨蟹 褋锌芯卸懈胁邪薪薪褟屑 褑懈褏 蟹邪屑芯褉褋褜泻懈褏 褌芯胁邪褉褨胁, 胁泻谢褞褔邪褞褔懈 褉芯蟹胁懈褌芯泻 褉褨蟹薪芯屑邪薪褨褌薪芯谐芯 锌芯褋褍写褍 褨 芯斜谢邪写薪邪薪薪褟 写谢褟 泻邪胁懈 褨 褔邪褞, 锌械褉械褏褨写 胁褨写 谢褞谢褜泻懈 写芯 褋懈谐邪褉懈, 邪 蟹谐芯写芯屑 写芯 褋懈谐邪褉械褌懈 写谢褟 褌褞褌褞薪褍. 笑褨泻邪胁芯 胁褨写屑褨褔邪褦褌褜褋褟, 褖芯 泻邪胁邪 蟹薪邪褔薪芯褞 屑褨褉芯褞 锌褉懈卸懈谢邪褋褟 褍 袩褨胁薪褨褔薪褨泄 褌邪 袟邪褏褨写薪褨泄 袆胁褉芯锌褨, 褔芯屑褍 褋锌褉懈褟谢邪 锌褉芯褌械褋褌邪薪褌褋褜泻邪 械褌懈泻邪, 褍 褌芯泄 卸械 褔邪褋, 褟泻 褕芯泻芯谢邪写 斜褍胁 锌芯锌褍谢褟褉薪懈泄 薪邪 袩褨胁写薪褨 袆胁褉芯锌懈 褨 斜褍胁 锌芯胁'褟蟹邪薪懈泄 蟹 泻邪褌芯谢懈褑懈蟹屑芯屑, 邪 褋邪屑械 屑芯卸谢懈胁褨褋褌褞 褋锌芯卸懈胁邪褌懈 泄芯谐芯 锌褨写 褔邪褋 锌芯褋褌褍 褟泻 褋懈褌薪褍 蟹邪屑褨薪褍 褩卸褨.
袟邪谐邪谢芯屑, 褑械 写褍卸械 泻芯褉懈褋薪邪 泻薪懈谐邪 写谢褟 褉芯蟹褍屑褨薪薪褟 写懈薪邪屑褨泻懈 褨褋薪褍胁邪薪薪褟 胁 褦胁褉芯锌械泄褋褜泻芯屑褍 泻褍谢褜褌褍褉薪芯屑褍 锌褉芯褋褌芯褉褨 锌褉芯写褍泻褌褨胁, 褟泻褨 褋褌邪谢懈 写谢褟 薪邪褋 褑褨谢泻芯屑 斜褍写械薪薪懈屑懈 褨 蟹胁懈褔薪懈屑懈, 邪谢械 褟泻褨 锌褉懈泄褕谢懈 写芯 薪邪褋 薪械 褌邪泻 写邪胁薪芯 褨 斜邪谐邪褌芯 胁 褔芯屑褍 胁锌谢懈薪褍谢懈 薪邪 卸懈褌褌褟 谢褞写械泄 褨 褩褏 蟹胁懈褔泻懈.
袟邪谐邪谢芯屑, 褑械 写褍卸械 泻芯褉懈褋薪邪 泻薪懈谐邪 写谢褟 褉芯蟹褍屑褨薪薪褟 写懈薪邪屑褨泻懈 褨褋薪褍胁邪薪薪褟 胁 褦胁褉芯锌械泄褋褜泻芯屑褍 泻褍谢褜褌褍褉薪芯屑褍 锌褉芯褋褌芯褉褨 锌褉芯写褍泻褌褨胁, 褟泻褨 褋褌邪谢懈 写谢褟 薪邪褋 褑褨谢泻芯屑 斜褍写械薪薪懈屑懈 褨 蟹胁懈褔薪懈屑懈, 邪谢械 褟泻褨 锌褉懈泄褕谢懈 写芯 薪邪褋 薪械 褌邪泻 写邪胁薪芯 褨 斜邪谐邪褌芯 胁 褔芯屑褍 胁锌谢懈薪褍谢懈 薪邪 卸懈褌褌褟 谢褞写械泄 褨 褩褏 蟹胁懈褔泻懈.
April 7, 2018
The history of spices and intoxicants intersects many social and economic histories. As their source was mainly through trade and colonisation, the absorption of many of the intoxicants and spices mentioned in this book point to global economic change, and widened experience.
New products often have early rituals associated with them and communal aspects, and it is interesting to consider how this ritualistic aspect diminishes as a product becomes more of a technology or commodity. The importance of picking the right pipe, the ritual of preparing the tobacco, for instance, gave way to the listless ease of cigarettes. Beer drinking, a distinctive group experience, led to hard liquor, stuff that is often a solitary experience, achieving the state of drunkenness faster.
We can see this progress with many products (social media for instance has lost much of its communal feeling as it has become commoditised. Except for 欧宝娱乐 of course. Long may it run.
This a short book and the reader often wants more depth. Entire avenues one can want to read about are lightly touched upon. Also the wonderful artwork deserved colour plates, but with the internet one can find them.
An excellent book, that leads one to wonder if books with some more depth exist.
New products often have early rituals associated with them and communal aspects, and it is interesting to consider how this ritualistic aspect diminishes as a product becomes more of a technology or commodity. The importance of picking the right pipe, the ritual of preparing the tobacco, for instance, gave way to the listless ease of cigarettes. Beer drinking, a distinctive group experience, led to hard liquor, stuff that is often a solitary experience, achieving the state of drunkenness faster.
We can see this progress with many products (social media for instance has lost much of its communal feeling as it has become commoditised. Except for 欧宝娱乐 of course. Long may it run.
This a short book and the reader often wants more depth. Entire avenues one can want to read about are lightly touched upon. Also the wonderful artwork deserved colour plates, but with the internet one can find them.
An excellent book, that leads one to wonder if books with some more depth exist.
February 4, 2023
泻薪懈谐邪 谢械谐泻邪 褨 褑褨泻邪胁邪! 写褍卸械 薪械薪邪锌褉褟卸薪懈泄 薪芯薪褎褨泻褕薪 蟹 褟泻褨褋薪芯褞 褨薪褎芯褉屑邪褑褨褦褞. 胁褨薪 薪械 胁写邪褦褌褜褋褟 褍 褋褍锌械褉 谐谢懈斜芯泻褨 写械褌邪谢褨 (褨 褨薪芯写褨 褑械 锌械褉械胁邪谐邪, 斜芯 锌褨褋谢褟 褔懈褌邪薪薪褟 写械褌邪谢褨蟹芯胁邪薪懈褏 胁械谢懈泻懈褏 薪芯薪褎褨泻褕械薪褨胁 褖械 褉褨泻 薪械 褏芯褔械褌褜褋褟 斜褉邪褌懈 泻薪懈谐褍 写芯 褉褍泻). 锌械褉械薪邪胁邪薪褌邪卸械薪薪褟 褨薪褎芯褉屑邪褑褨褦褞 薪械 斜褍写械, 邪谢械 褉邪蟹芯屑 蟹 褌懈屑 斜械蟹 蟹薪邪薪褜 蟹邪谢懈褕懈褌褜褋褟 薪械 胁懈泄写械, 斜芯 芯斜鈥樠斝貉傂� 写芯褋谢褨写卸械薪薪褟 蟹邪褔械锌懈谢懈 胁褋褨褏 褨 泻芯卸薪芯谐芯. 谐邪褉薪懈泄 薪械胁械谢懈泻懈泄 褨褋褌芯褉懈褔薪懈泄 械泻褋泻褍褉褋 胁 褨褋褌芯褉褨褞 褔邪褞, 泻邪胁懈, 褌褞褌褞薪褍 褌邪 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褞!
March 17, 2023
Genel olarak gayet ak谋c谋 ve bilgilendirici. 3 y谋ld谋z vermenin sebebi, 莽ay, kahve, 莽ikolata, t眉t眉n, bira ve distile i莽eceklerin d谋艧谋nda ba艧ka keyif verici maddeleri yazmam谋艧 olmas谋. Beklentim kitab谋n uyu艧turucular谋n tarihini anlatmas谋yd谋 ancak bunlar 眉zerine neredeyse hi莽 bir 艧ey yok.
Daha 枚nce okudu臒um 6 Bardakta D眉nya Tarihi, bu manada daha geni艧 ve bilgilendiriciydi. Ayr谋ca keyif verici maddelerin sadece Avrupadaki durumunun i艧lenmi艧 olmas谋 kitab谋n g眉莽l眉 yan谋 m谋 zay谋f yan谋 m谋 emin olamad谋m.
Daha 枚nce okudu臒um 6 Bardakta D眉nya Tarihi, bu manada daha geni艧 ve bilgilendiriciydi. Ayr谋ca keyif verici maddelerin sadece Avrupadaki durumunun i艧lenmi艧 olmas谋 kitab谋n g眉莽l眉 yan谋 m谋 zay谋f yan谋 m谋 emin olamad谋m.
June 8, 2019
褍谢褞斜谢械薪邪! 屑芯胁邪 锌褉懈褦屑薪芯 蟹邪褌褟谐褍褦 褌械斜械 胁 褑褨 褋屑邪泻芯胁褨 写褍褉屑邪薪懈, 邪 胁褨蟹褍邪谢褜薪邪 褔邪褋褌懈薪邪 褋褌胁芯褉褞褦 褨写械邪谢褜薪褍 邪褌屑芯褋褎械褉褍, 薪械 泻薪懈谐邪, 邪 锌褉芯褋褌芯 薪邪褋芯谢芯写邪
锌褉芯 泻褍谢褜褌褍褉褍 褋锌芯卸懈胁邪薪薪褟 泻邪胁懈, 褔邪褞, 褌褞褌褞薪褍 褌邪 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褞 - 褉邪写卸褍 写褍卸械 褨 写褍卸械 褋懈谢褜薪芯!
锌褉芯 泻褍谢褜褌褍褉褍 褋锌芯卸懈胁邪薪薪褟 泻邪胁懈, 褔邪褞, 褌褞褌褞薪褍 褌邪 邪谢泻芯谐芯谢褞 - 褉邪写卸褍 写褍卸械 褨 写褍卸械 褋懈谢褜薪芯!
September 17, 2020
携泻 蟹屑褨薪褞胁邪谢芯褋褟 褋褍褋锌褨谢褜褋褌胁芯 蟹 锌芯褟胁芯褞 薪械蟹薪邪薪懈褏 锌褉褟薪芯褖褨胁, 蟹斜褍写薪懈泻褨胁 褌邪 写褍褉屑邪薪褨胁 胁 袆胁褉芯锌褨? "袣褍褉懈褌懈" - 写褨褦褋谢芯胁芯, 褟泻械 褉邪薪褨褕械 薪械 褨褋薪褍胁邪谢芯 胁 袆胁褉芯锌褨, 褌芯屑褍 蟹 锌芯褟胁芯褞 褌邪斜邪泻褍 褦胁褉芯锌械褑泄褨 "锌懈谢懈 写懈屑", 邪写卸械 锌懈褌懈 胁懈薪芯 褔懈 锌懈胁芯 写谢褟 薪懈褏 斜褍谢芯 斜褨谢褜褕 蟹胁懈褔薪懈屑 褔懈屑 泻褍褉懈褌懈.
June 20, 2023
袧械锌芯谐邪薪械 褔褌懈胁芯, 褏芯褔邪 屑械薪褨 蟹薪邪写芯斜懈谢芯褋褟 写褍卸械 斜邪谐邪褌芯 褔邪褋褍, 褖芯斜 锌芯写褍卸邪褌懈 褨 写芯褔懈褌邪褌懈 褩褩. 袟邪谐邪谢芯屑 斜褨谢褜褕褨褋褌褜 褨薪褎芯褉屑邪褑褨褩 褨 褌邪泻 蟹薪邪胁 写芯 褑褜芯谐芯, 褌褍褌 褌褨谢褜泻懈 蟹褨斜褉邪薪芯 胁褋械 胁 芯写薪褨泄 泻薪懈蟹褨.
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