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Poetics
'What is poetry, how many kinds of it are there, and what are their specific effects?'
Aristotle's Poetics is the most influential book on poetry ever written. A founding text of European aesthetics and literary criticism, from it stems much of our modern understanding of the creation and impact of imaginative writing, including poetry, drama, and fiction. For Aristotle, the art of representation conveys universal truths which we can appreciate more easily than the lessons of history or philosophy. In his short treatise Aristotle discusses the origins of poetry and its early development, the nature of tragedy and plot, and offers practical advice to playwrights.
Aristotle's Poetics is the most influential book on poetry ever written. A founding text of European aesthetics and literary criticism, from it stems much of our modern understanding of the creation and impact of imaginative writing, including poetry, drama, and fiction. For Aristotle, the art of representation conveys universal truths which we can appreciate more easily than the lessons of history or philosophy. In his short treatise Aristotle discusses the origins of poetry and its early development, the nature of tragedy and plot, and offers practical advice to playwrights.
144 pages, Paperback
First published January 1, 336
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About the author
Aristotle
3,290?books5,278?followersAristotle (Greek: ¦¡¦Ñ¦É¦Ò¦Ó¦Ï¦Ó?¦Ë¦Ç?; 384¨C322 BC) was an Ancient Greek philosopher and polymath. His writings cover a broad range of subjects spanning the natural sciences, philosophy, linguistics, economics, politics, psychology, and the arts. As the founder of the Peripatetic school of philosophy in the Lyceum in Athens, he began the wider Aristotelian tradition that followed, which set the groundwork for the development of modern science.
Little is known about Aristotle's life. He was born in the city of Stagira in northern Greece during the Classical period. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, and he was brought up by a guardian. At 17 or 18, he joined Plato's Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of 37 (c.?347 BC). Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, tutored his son Alexander the Great beginning in 343 BC. He established a library in the Lyceum, which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on papyrus scrolls.
Though Aristotle wrote many treatises and dialogues for publication, only around a third of his original output has survived, none of it intended for publication. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him. His teachings and methods of inquiry have had a significant impact across the world, and remain a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion.
Aristotle's views profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. The influence of his physical science extended from late antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, and was not replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics were developed. He influenced Judeo-Islamic philosophies during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church.
Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as "The First Teacher", and among medieval Christians like Thomas Aquinas as simply "The Philosopher", while the poet Dante Alighieri called him "the master of those who know". His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, and were studied by medieval scholars such as Pierre Ab¨¦lard and Jean Buridan. Aristotle's influence on logic continued well into the 19th century. In addition, his ethics, although always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics.
Little is known about Aristotle's life. He was born in the city of Stagira in northern Greece during the Classical period. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, and he was brought up by a guardian. At 17 or 18, he joined Plato's Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of 37 (c.?347 BC). Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, tutored his son Alexander the Great beginning in 343 BC. He established a library in the Lyceum, which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on papyrus scrolls.
Though Aristotle wrote many treatises and dialogues for publication, only around a third of his original output has survived, none of it intended for publication. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him. His teachings and methods of inquiry have had a significant impact across the world, and remain a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion.
Aristotle's views profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. The influence of his physical science extended from late antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, and was not replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics were developed. He influenced Judeo-Islamic philosophies during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church.
Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as "The First Teacher", and among medieval Christians like Thomas Aquinas as simply "The Philosopher", while the poet Dante Alighieri called him "the master of those who know". His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, and were studied by medieval scholars such as Pierre Ab¨¦lard and Jean Buridan. Aristotle's influence on logic continued well into the 19th century. In addition, his ethics, although always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics.
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March 6, 2024
During the golden age of ancient Greece bards roamed the countryside mesmerizing crowds by reciting the epics of Homer. Thousands of men and women gathered and were moved to tears by tragedies performed outside in amphitheaters during sacred festivals. Such an amazingly powerful and profound experience for an entire population. What was going on here; why were people so deeply affected? Well, one of the sharpest, most analytic minds in the history of the West set himself the task of answering just this question - his name was Aristotle.
Indeed, Aristotle's Poetics is one of the greatest philosophical works ever written. For over two thousand years, philosophers, scholars and thinkers have been pouring over each phrase and sentence of the master's words as if they were nuggets of gold. There are enough commentaries to fill several thick volumes in a university library. Quite something since the entire Poetics is a mere twenty pages. But what coverage! To list several: plot, character, language and two concepts supercharged with meaning: mimesis (imitation) and catharsis (inspiring pity or fear).
Of course, in our contemporary world we don't listen to bards recite epics or go to amphitheaters to watch tragedies, but we have abundant experience of these dramatic elements since we, among other things, read novels and watch films. So, to provide a taste of Aristotle's work, I offer my modest comments along with quotes from the text. Please take this as an invitation to explore the Poetics on your own. Below is a link to a fine translation and a second link to an extraordinarily clear, brief, easy-to follow commentary.
"Poetry in general seems to have sprung from two causes, each of them lying deep in our nature. First, the instinct of imitation is implanted in man from childhood, one difference between him and other animals being that he is the most imitative of living creatures, and through imitation learns his earliest lessons; and no less universal is the pleasure felt in things imitated. . . . to learn gives the liveliest pleasure, not only to philosophers but to men in general"
Ah, pleasure! And pleasure in learning about life through imitation/fiction. Even if the story involves a Siberian prison camp or an insane chase of a white whale, there is a kind of pleasure in identifying with a character and living through the character's plight. Our humanness is enriched.
"Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude." -
The Maltese Falcon begins with very serious action: a murder. And the story is complete since at the end the case is solved and the criminals answer for their crimes. How many novels and films follow this formula? Round to the nearest million.
"Now as tragic imitation implies persons acting, it necessarily follows in the first place, that Spectacular equipment will be a part of Tragedy."
Even back in ancient Greece, Aristotle acknowledges how special effects can really juice the action.
"The most powerful elements of emotional interest in Tragedy- Peripeteia or Reversal of the Situation, and Recognition scenes- are parts of the plot."
I don't know about you, but I recall with the film Gone Girl my interest would ratchet up a few notches with every reversal and recognition. I can just imagine Gillian Flynn pouring over her Aristotle.
"The greater the length, the more beautiful will the piece be by reason of its size, provided that the whole be perspicuous."
When I go to a three hour movie or pick up a nine hundred page novel, my first thought: this had better be good. And when it is good, a great pay-off for time spent.
"Tragedy is an imitation not only of a complete action, but of events inspiring fear or pity."
Admit it, we remember most those times when we are emotionally wrenched.
Poetics, on line:
Commentary:
March 9, 2019
I just reluctantly gave my copy of Aristotle's Poetics to my son, who recently discovered drama. It is earmarked and highlighted and it guided me through university, telling me what I needed to know about tragedy and its core elements, such as unity of time, place and action.
The reason we started talking about drama was that my son didn't particularly like Emilia Galotti, Lessing's "B¨¹rgerliche Trag?die", and we talked about the strange code of honour that made a father kill his daughter to save her virtue. "What's progressive about that?" my son asked furiously, and I found myself in the bizarre position to defend patriarchy and its flawed moral codes, by saying that it was modern "back then" to let a girl die "tragically" without being a princess or a queen.
My son raised his eyebrows, and I sensed the lack of logic.
"So it was progressive that women of ALL classes were allowed to be sacrificed to the egos of men who considered them their property?"
"Eh!"
I love the fact that literature makes me challenge my own acquired knowledge, and think again about something I just took at face value when I read Emilia Galotti myself. For of course it is bizarre, especially considering that Lessing is a representative of Enlightenment culture.
And while we were at it, we talked about all the other bizarre elements of classical drama.
And we realised that it is more like life than we first thought: after all, each day we reinvent the narratives of our lives and press them into what we can perceive as one action, one place and one time: one day of madness and drama.
So yesterday I acted out the tragic loss of my university copy of Aristotle! It will stay in spirit.
The reason we started talking about drama was that my son didn't particularly like Emilia Galotti, Lessing's "B¨¹rgerliche Trag?die", and we talked about the strange code of honour that made a father kill his daughter to save her virtue. "What's progressive about that?" my son asked furiously, and I found myself in the bizarre position to defend patriarchy and its flawed moral codes, by saying that it was modern "back then" to let a girl die "tragically" without being a princess or a queen.
My son raised his eyebrows, and I sensed the lack of logic.
"So it was progressive that women of ALL classes were allowed to be sacrificed to the egos of men who considered them their property?"
"Eh!"
I love the fact that literature makes me challenge my own acquired knowledge, and think again about something I just took at face value when I read Emilia Galotti myself. For of course it is bizarre, especially considering that Lessing is a representative of Enlightenment culture.
And while we were at it, we talked about all the other bizarre elements of classical drama.
And we realised that it is more like life than we first thought: after all, each day we reinvent the narratives of our lives and press them into what we can perceive as one action, one place and one time: one day of madness and drama.
So yesterday I acted out the tragic loss of my university copy of Aristotle! It will stay in spirit.
March 19, 2025
After taking the plunge (it's still nothing to say that we are about to read an author of about 300 BC), I am in the company of Aristotle. My first impression was, "Actually, it's not as bad as I imagined."
Indeed, some terms remain beyond our reach, but they should not fool us. Please read the text as you would a foreign language, passing over incomprehensible words to grasp the essence of the text.
This little work is interesting, with sixty pages of text and four pages of notes. We learn how to produce such an effect on the reader (or the spectator), arouse such emotion, and arrange the facts between them. Even today, writers are inspired by Aristotle to write their stories. I understand why today.
Indeed, some terms remain beyond our reach, but they should not fool us. Please read the text as you would a foreign language, passing over incomprehensible words to grasp the essence of the text.
This little work is interesting, with sixty pages of text and four pages of notes. We learn how to produce such an effect on the reader (or the spectator), arouse such emotion, and arrange the facts between them. Even today, writers are inspired by Aristotle to write their stories. I understand why today.
March 26, 2017
It¡¯s odd that the most ancient essay on literary criticism is one of the easiest to understand. It is so accessible. If you compare this to works by Nietzsche, Hegel and Freud the extremities of this can easily be seen. Aristotle explains his theory in the most basic language possible with no artful language that distances the reader from it. It is completely comprehensive and virtually impossible not to understand. Aristotle was an advocate of presenting his arguments in the most simplest of languages. And I thank him for it.
Without this book I don¡¯t think I would have been able to fully comprehend exactly what a Tragedy is or how they work, and I most certainly wouldn¡¯t have been able to pass my Tragedy module of my degree. The Poetics is essentially a guide, or rulebook, for what makes the perfect tragic play. Aristotle argues, well teaches us, that it is achieved through a Cathartic moment that arouses pity and fear at the same time. This occurs only if the plot is sufficiently complex, which brings forth the tragic action.
The plot¡¯s complexity should be achieved through the use of recognition, a reversal and heaps of suffering for everybody. The reversal is usually something like the revenger becoming the revenged and this can be achieved through recognition. The recognition is the true knowledge acquired about one¡¯s circumstance, which will always bring about suffering for the tragic character. In addition, the tragic characters should have a hamartia, which is to say they should have a tragic flaw. This could be something like extreme loyalty or ignorance. If you believe the Hegel model of tragedy then this is also the thing that makes the character ¡°better than ourselves.¡± The best illustration of a hamartia, and the one Aristotle uses, is Oedipus. His lack of knowledge causes him to murder his farther and marry his mother, but at the same time leads him to become a mighty King.
This is a work that every literature student is encouraged to read, and there¡¯s a reason for it. Aristotle¡¯s theory enlightens the reader to the devices behind tragic art. Once you¡¯ve read this you¡¯ll never be able to read a Tragedy again without this in mind; it forms almost a mental checklist in your head.
Without this book I don¡¯t think I would have been able to fully comprehend exactly what a Tragedy is or how they work, and I most certainly wouldn¡¯t have been able to pass my Tragedy module of my degree. The Poetics is essentially a guide, or rulebook, for what makes the perfect tragic play. Aristotle argues, well teaches us, that it is achieved through a Cathartic moment that arouses pity and fear at the same time. This occurs only if the plot is sufficiently complex, which brings forth the tragic action.
The plot¡¯s complexity should be achieved through the use of recognition, a reversal and heaps of suffering for everybody. The reversal is usually something like the revenger becoming the revenged and this can be achieved through recognition. The recognition is the true knowledge acquired about one¡¯s circumstance, which will always bring about suffering for the tragic character. In addition, the tragic characters should have a hamartia, which is to say they should have a tragic flaw. This could be something like extreme loyalty or ignorance. If you believe the Hegel model of tragedy then this is also the thing that makes the character ¡°better than ourselves.¡± The best illustration of a hamartia, and the one Aristotle uses, is Oedipus. His lack of knowledge causes him to murder his farther and marry his mother, but at the same time leads him to become a mighty King.
This is a work that every literature student is encouraged to read, and there¡¯s a reason for it. Aristotle¡¯s theory enlightens the reader to the devices behind tragic art. Once you¡¯ve read this you¡¯ll never be able to read a Tragedy again without this in mind; it forms almost a mental checklist in your head.
December 3, 2009
This is perhaps my favourite philosopher of the Ancient world chatting about literary criticism ¨C it doesn¡¯t really get too much better than this. Plato, of course, wanted to banish all of the artists from his ideal republic. He wanted to do this because the world we live in is a poor copy of the ¡®real¡¯ world and so art is but a copy of a copy. Rather than bring us closer to the truth, Plato believed that art took us further away.
It can¡¯t have been easy for Aristotle, Plato¡¯s student, to disagree with the views of the master ¨C but disagree he clearly did. He begins this by agreeing with Plato that art is imitation of the world, but rather than this being a bad thing, he says that the advantage of art is that it cuts out the dross of existence and concentrates what is important. By doing this art allows us to look beyond the particulars of our everyday existence and see the universals. The lessons we learn from art are thereby clearer and easier to assimilate. Life is always lived in the particular, but art, to Aristotle, allows us to see deeper truths because it moves us towards universals. Characters may have individual names, but we find it harder to distance ourselves from characters in fiction than we are able to do with characters in history.
It would be hard to discuss this book without mentioning catharsis. It is a Greek word meaning purgative, and to Aristotle the appeal of tragedies was that they act like a purgative on our emotions. It is a fascinating idea and one that I think still holds. It would be otherwise hard to see why we enjoy tragedies. The notion that ¡®there but for the grace of God¡¯ and the recognition that bad things happen even to the best of men are ideas that do have a cathartic effect on our emotions. Shit happens, but it happens to the best of us as well as to the worst of us.
There is always something nice about watching Aristotle slice up the world ¨C he is a remarkably logical person and someone who is able to not only divide the world into its logical components, but to then say incredibly interesting things about these slices.
I first read this twenty years ago, it is well worth reading and re-reading.
It can¡¯t have been easy for Aristotle, Plato¡¯s student, to disagree with the views of the master ¨C but disagree he clearly did. He begins this by agreeing with Plato that art is imitation of the world, but rather than this being a bad thing, he says that the advantage of art is that it cuts out the dross of existence and concentrates what is important. By doing this art allows us to look beyond the particulars of our everyday existence and see the universals. The lessons we learn from art are thereby clearer and easier to assimilate. Life is always lived in the particular, but art, to Aristotle, allows us to see deeper truths because it moves us towards universals. Characters may have individual names, but we find it harder to distance ourselves from characters in fiction than we are able to do with characters in history.
It would be hard to discuss this book without mentioning catharsis. It is a Greek word meaning purgative, and to Aristotle the appeal of tragedies was that they act like a purgative on our emotions. It is a fascinating idea and one that I think still holds. It would be otherwise hard to see why we enjoy tragedies. The notion that ¡®there but for the grace of God¡¯ and the recognition that bad things happen even to the best of men are ideas that do have a cathartic effect on our emotions. Shit happens, but it happens to the best of us as well as to the worst of us.
There is always something nice about watching Aristotle slice up the world ¨C he is a remarkably logical person and someone who is able to not only divide the world into its logical components, but to then say incredibly interesting things about these slices.
I first read this twenty years ago, it is well worth reading and re-reading.
September 10, 2019
If you want to learn about tragedy--or narrative in general--this is still the best place to start.
May 13, 2023
The title is misleading; Aristotle discusses in this treatise not poetry but drama, and in particular the tragedy. The confusion rises from the fact that Classical Greek plays used to be written in metred verse. Aristotle's analysis is so lucid and systematic that it is hard to believe that this book was written more than two thousand years ago. Scholars believe that it was originally compiled by Aristotle's students as lecture notes, and many of them surmise the existence of a second volume, devoted to comedy - now long lost (this missing volume has a major role to play in the storyline of Umberto Eco's The Name of the Rose).
Aristotle cites many examples from Classical Greek plays, and sadly I was not familiar with most of them. Even with my partial understanding I found this book to be an outstanding testament for an exceptional intellect.
Aristotle cites many examples from Classical Greek plays, and sadly I was not familiar with most of them. Even with my partial understanding I found this book to be an outstanding testament for an exceptional intellect.
This entire review has been hidden because of spoilers.
October 21, 2020
¦°¦Å¦Ñ? ¦Ð¦Ï¦É¦Ç¦Ó¦É¦Ê?? = De Poetica; c. 335 BC = Aristotelis de arte Poetica Liber = Poetics, Aristotle
Aristotle's Poetics is the earliest surviving work of dramatic theory and first extant philosophical treatise to focus on literary theory in the West. This has been the traditional view for centuries.
The table of contents page of the Poetics found in Modern Library's Basic Works of Aristotle (2001) identifies five basic parts within it.
A. Preliminary discourse on tragedy, epic poetry, and comedy, as the chief forms of imitative poetry.
B. Definition of a tragedy, and the rules for its construction. Definition and analysis into qualitative parts.
C. Rules for the construction of a tragedy: Tragic pleasure, or catharsis experienced by fear and pity should be produced in the spectator. The characters must be four things: good, appropriate, realistic, and consistent. Discovery must occur within the plot. Narratives, stories, structures and poetics overlap. It is important for the poet to visualize all of the scenes when creating the plot. The poet should incorporate complication and d¨¦nouement within the story, as well as combine all of the elements of tragedy. The poet must express thought through the characters' words and actions, while paying close attention to diction and how a character's spoken words express a specific idea. Aristotle believed that all of these different elements had to be present in order for the poetry to be well-done.
D. Possible criticisms of an epic or tragedy, and the answers to them.
E. Tragedy as artistically superior to epic poetry: Tragedy has everything that the epic has, even the epic meter being admissible. The reality of presentation is felt in the play as read, as well as in the play as acted. The tragic imitation requires less space for the attainment of its end. If it has more concentrated effect, it is more pleasurable than one with a large admixture of time to dilute it. There is less unity in the imitation of the epic poets (plurality of actions) and this is proved by the fact that an epic poem can supply enough material for several tragedies.
???????: ??? ????? ???? ????? ???????? ????? ?????????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ???: ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ?? ??? 1974??????
?????: ?? ???? ???: ?????? ?????: ????????? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ? ?????? ??? ??? 1343? ?? 245?? ???????? ????? ??? ??? 1353? ??? ???? ?????? ????????? 1369? ?? 220?? ??? ??? 1381? ??? ????? 1382? ??? ???? 1385? ??? ??? 1387? ??? ???? ? ????? 1392? ???? 9789640007860? ?????: ??? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ??? 4??? ?? ?????
?????? ??? ?? ???????? ??? ????? ? ???? ????? ???????? ?? ??? 1335???? ???????? ?? ????? ???? ???? ???? ????????? ???? ???????? ??????? ? ?? ??? 1337???? ???????? ? ?? ????? ????? ?????????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ?? ????? ? ???? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ? ??? ??? ????? (?? ??? = ?????? = ???????)?? ???????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ??? ????????? ?? ???? ? ????? ? ????????? ? ?????? ????? ? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ? ?????? ? ????? ???? ???????? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ?? ?? ??? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ??? ?? ???? - ?? ???????? ?????? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ???????? ?? ??? ????????? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ?? ????? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ? ??????? ?????? ????? ?? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ??? ?? ????? ? ?????? ? ?? ??????? ? ?????? ?? ????? ???????? ???? ?????? ??? ?? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ?? ??????? ??????? ?????? (????? ?? ??? 339????)?? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ?? ??? ????????? ?? ?? ???????? ?????????? ????? ??? ?? ??? ??? ? ????? ?? ??? ?????????? ??????? ????? ???? (???????)???? ?? ?? ????? ?????? ????????? ??? ?? ?? ????? ? ??? ???????? ???????? ????? ??????? ??????? ????? ???? ???? ???
????? ?????? ????? 29/07/1399???? ???????? ?. ???????
Aristotle's Poetics is the earliest surviving work of dramatic theory and first extant philosophical treatise to focus on literary theory in the West. This has been the traditional view for centuries.
The table of contents page of the Poetics found in Modern Library's Basic Works of Aristotle (2001) identifies five basic parts within it.
A. Preliminary discourse on tragedy, epic poetry, and comedy, as the chief forms of imitative poetry.
B. Definition of a tragedy, and the rules for its construction. Definition and analysis into qualitative parts.
C. Rules for the construction of a tragedy: Tragic pleasure, or catharsis experienced by fear and pity should be produced in the spectator. The characters must be four things: good, appropriate, realistic, and consistent. Discovery must occur within the plot. Narratives, stories, structures and poetics overlap. It is important for the poet to visualize all of the scenes when creating the plot. The poet should incorporate complication and d¨¦nouement within the story, as well as combine all of the elements of tragedy. The poet must express thought through the characters' words and actions, while paying close attention to diction and how a character's spoken words express a specific idea. Aristotle believed that all of these different elements had to be present in order for the poetry to be well-done.
D. Possible criticisms of an epic or tragedy, and the answers to them.
E. Tragedy as artistically superior to epic poetry: Tragedy has everything that the epic has, even the epic meter being admissible. The reality of presentation is felt in the play as read, as well as in the play as acted. The tragic imitation requires less space for the attainment of its end. If it has more concentrated effect, it is more pleasurable than one with a large admixture of time to dilute it. There is less unity in the imitation of the epic poets (plurality of actions) and this is proved by the fact that an epic poem can supply enough material for several tragedies.
???????: ??? ????? ???? ????? ???????? ????? ?????????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ???: ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ?? ??? 1974??????
?????: ?? ???? ???: ?????? ?????: ????????? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ? ?????? ??? ??? 1343? ?? 245?? ???????? ????? ??? ??? 1353? ??? ???? ?????? ????????? 1369? ?? 220?? ??? ??? 1381? ??? ????? 1382? ??? ???? 1385? ??? ??? 1387? ??? ???? ? ????? 1392? ???? 9789640007860? ?????: ??? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ??? 4??? ?? ?????
?????? ??? ?? ???????? ??? ????? ? ???? ????? ???????? ?? ??? 1335???? ???????? ?? ????? ???? ???? ???? ????????? ???? ???????? ??????? ? ?? ??? 1337???? ???????? ? ?? ????? ????? ?????????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ?? ????? ? ???? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ? ??? ??? ????? (?? ??? = ?????? = ???????)?? ???????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ??? ????????? ?? ???? ? ????? ? ????????? ? ?????? ????? ? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ? ?????? ? ????? ???? ???????? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ?? ?? ??? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ??? ?? ???? - ?? ???????? ?????? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ???????? ?? ??? ????????? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ?? ????? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ? ??????? ?????? ????? ?? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ??? ?? ????? ? ?????? ? ?? ??????? ? ?????? ?? ????? ???????? ???? ?????? ??? ?? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ?? ??????? ??????? ?????? (????? ?? ??? 339????)?? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ?? ??? ????????? ?? ?? ???????? ?????????? ????? ??? ?? ??? ??? ? ????? ?? ??? ?????????? ??????? ????? ???? (???????)???? ?? ?? ????? ?????? ????????? ??? ?? ?? ????? ? ??? ???????? ???????? ????? ??????? ??????? ????? ???? ???? ???
????? ?????? ????? 29/07/1399???? ???????? ?. ???????
January 9, 2019
??????? ????? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ???. ?? ?? ???? ?? ??? ????????? ?? ???? ???? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ??? ?? ?? ??? ?? ???????? ???????? ?? ??? ????? ???. ???? ?????? ???????? ???? ??? ? ????? ???? ?? ???? ??? ??? ? ?????? ?????. ?? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ? ????. ??? ?? ?? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ? ????? ??? ? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ??. ?? ???? ?? ??? ??? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ? ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ????.
??? ?????:
?????? ?? ?? ??? ????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ??? ???? ???? ???. ????? ?????? ?? ?? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ??? ?? ??? ? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ???? ???? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ?? ?? ????? ???? ? ??? ????? ???? ??? ????? (??? ?? ???= ???? ??? ??????) ???. ??? ??? ?????? ???????? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ????? ???? ?? ????. ?? ???? ?? ?? ??? ????? ?? ?? ???? ???? ???? ?? ??? ?? ?????? ??? ? ????? ???? ??? : ??????? ?????? ???. ??? ???? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ? ??? ?? ?????? ???? ? ?????? ??????? ? ??? ?????? ????? ?????.
???????? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ???????? ??? ?? ???? ??????? ? ????? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ??????. ??? ??????? ??? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ?? ?? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ?? ???????? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ????. ??? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ????? ? ??? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ???? ? ???? ?????? ???? ? ?? ?? ?? ????? ????.
????? ?????? ?? ?????:
????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ???. ?? ?? ?? ??? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ????? ????. ??? ?? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ???? ????? ??? ??? ?? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ?????????? ????? ???? ? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ????? ????? ?? ?? ?? ???? ????? ???? ???? ??. ????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ???? ? ???? ?? ????? ?? ?? ?? ????? ??????. ??? ?? ???? ??? ??? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ?? ? ?? ????? ????? ??? ???? ? ??????? ?????? (?????? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ¨C ????? ? ...) ?? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ? ?? ?? ????? ?? ???.
???? ??? ? ????? ????? ?? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ? ???? ???? ???? ?? ?? ???? ???? ????? ???? ????. ?? ??? ??? ???? ??? ?? ???? ??? ????? ??? ???? ?? ????? ??? ?? ???? ???? ? ????? ???.
97/10/19
??? ?????:
?????? ?? ?? ??? ????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ??? ???? ???? ???. ????? ?????? ?? ?? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ??? ?? ??? ? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ???? ???? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ?? ?? ????? ???? ? ??? ????? ???? ??? ????? (??? ?? ???= ???? ??? ??????) ???. ??? ??? ?????? ???????? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ????? ???? ?? ????. ?? ???? ?? ?? ??? ????? ?? ?? ???? ???? ???? ?? ??? ?? ?????? ??? ? ????? ???? ??? : ??????? ?????? ???. ??? ???? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ? ??? ?? ?????? ???? ? ?????? ??????? ? ??? ?????? ????? ?????.
???????? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ???????? ??? ?? ???? ??????? ? ????? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ??????. ??? ??????? ??? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ?? ?? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ?? ???????? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ????. ??? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ????? ? ??? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ???? ? ???? ?????? ???? ? ?? ?? ?? ????? ????.
????? ?????? ?? ?????:
????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ???. ?? ?? ?? ??? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ????? ????. ??? ?? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ???? ????? ??? ??? ?? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ?????????? ????? ???? ? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ????? ????? ?? ?? ?? ???? ????? ???? ???? ??. ????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ???? ? ???? ?? ????? ?? ?? ?? ????? ??????. ??? ?? ???? ??? ??? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ?? ? ?? ????? ????? ??? ???? ? ??????? ?????? (?????? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ¨C ????? ? ...) ?? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ? ?? ?? ????? ?? ???.
???? ??? ? ????? ????? ?? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ? ???? ???? ???? ?? ?? ???? ???? ????? ???? ????. ?? ??? ??? ???? ??? ?? ???? ??? ????? ??? ???? ?? ????? ??? ?? ???? ???? ? ????? ???.
97/10/19
February 17, 2023
I read this for The Literary Life Podcast. Fascinating ideas that spark thought and discussion. I do not think this would in any way be a modern manual for writing, although I do think there are helpful ideas which spark further thinking.
March 20, 2025
5 ?
Aristotle¡¯s lecture notes containing the philosophical analysis of Tragedy and Epic, the number and variety of their forms and component parts, what he perceived to be the causes of their success and failure, and his response to the criticism of a number of his contemporaries, particularly in response to Tragedy which he believed to be the superior of the two forms.
What struck me most, while reading the ¡®Poetics¡¯ was, for notes written in the latter part of the 4th Century BCE, just how 1. Accessible the work is in translation and 2. How relevant much of the information is to our modern understanding of literature/theatre.
In the time that I was reading this, I came across reference to the poetics several times in modern works; one of which was in Sol Stein¡¯s instructive manual on writing where there were a few crossover points and if my memory serves me correctly, even an explicit throwback. Despite this relevancy and incredible influence with regard to modern writing, I wouldn¡¯t necessarily recommend this as a manual on how to write poetry or even on how to produce dramas of any type. Aristotle¡¯s primary drive is a desire for understanding, a philosophical pursuit. In addition, anything Aristotle has to say here has been adopted and adapted to suit our modern times in more appropriate works for that purpose; works in which (as you might expect) you can avoid some of the more antiquated/redundant ideas such as on the ¡°appropriateness¡± of characterization, about which Aristotle notes that men should not be presented as too wimpy or sentimental, nor women as too courageous or clever. There have, of course, been exceptions and I would suggest that where exceptions have been made is where you¡¯ll find some of the more compelling female characters in tragedy.
So, recommend the work I shall but primarily for those with an interest in Greek tragedy/epic who would like a depiction of what was considered the ideal form of tragedy and epic by a very intelligent individual separated a mere century from the great tragedians rather than millenia.
It¡¯s a very short work (not least of all because some of it is missing eg. Discussion on ¡±ornamental nouns¡± or epithets) and, as such, in my edition, translated and with an introduction and notes by Malcolm Heath, only roughly 30% of the book was the work of Aristotle himself, the other 70% taken up by the intro and notes. Crazy right?! But I¡¯ll admit, I wouldn¡¯t have learned half as much through a straight reading of the ¡®Poetics¡¯. Heath has included a pretty substantial analysis of each section (sections that he has himself designated for structure and cohesiveness) which is most beneficial in its clarification of some of Aristotle¡¯s ambiguous terminology and to illuminate the layman reader on references made to things outside of the work itself which would¡¯ve been clear to readers of 330 BCE but not so much to us.
If you¡¯re reading Homer or Greek tragedy at this very moment than it would be the ideal time to pick this one up. Enjoy! :)
Aristotle¡¯s lecture notes containing the philosophical analysis of Tragedy and Epic, the number and variety of their forms and component parts, what he perceived to be the causes of their success and failure, and his response to the criticism of a number of his contemporaries, particularly in response to Tragedy which he believed to be the superior of the two forms.
What struck me most, while reading the ¡®Poetics¡¯ was, for notes written in the latter part of the 4th Century BCE, just how 1. Accessible the work is in translation and 2. How relevant much of the information is to our modern understanding of literature/theatre.
In the time that I was reading this, I came across reference to the poetics several times in modern works; one of which was in Sol Stein¡¯s instructive manual on writing where there were a few crossover points and if my memory serves me correctly, even an explicit throwback. Despite this relevancy and incredible influence with regard to modern writing, I wouldn¡¯t necessarily recommend this as a manual on how to write poetry or even on how to produce dramas of any type. Aristotle¡¯s primary drive is a desire for understanding, a philosophical pursuit. In addition, anything Aristotle has to say here has been adopted and adapted to suit our modern times in more appropriate works for that purpose; works in which (as you might expect) you can avoid some of the more antiquated/redundant ideas such as on the ¡°appropriateness¡± of characterization, about which Aristotle notes that men should not be presented as too wimpy or sentimental, nor women as too courageous or clever. There have, of course, been exceptions and I would suggest that where exceptions have been made is where you¡¯ll find some of the more compelling female characters in tragedy.
So, recommend the work I shall but primarily for those with an interest in Greek tragedy/epic who would like a depiction of what was considered the ideal form of tragedy and epic by a very intelligent individual separated a mere century from the great tragedians rather than millenia.
It¡¯s a very short work (not least of all because some of it is missing eg. Discussion on ¡±ornamental nouns¡± or epithets) and, as such, in my edition, translated and with an introduction and notes by Malcolm Heath, only roughly 30% of the book was the work of Aristotle himself, the other 70% taken up by the intro and notes. Crazy right?! But I¡¯ll admit, I wouldn¡¯t have learned half as much through a straight reading of the ¡®Poetics¡¯. Heath has included a pretty substantial analysis of each section (sections that he has himself designated for structure and cohesiveness) which is most beneficial in its clarification of some of Aristotle¡¯s ambiguous terminology and to illuminate the layman reader on references made to things outside of the work itself which would¡¯ve been clear to readers of 330 BCE but not so much to us.
If you¡¯re reading Homer or Greek tragedy at this very moment than it would be the ideal time to pick this one up. Enjoy! :)
January 21, 2015
This is the best commentary I could find on The Poetics. Bywater's is a much better translation and immensely readable, except for the places where he employs the Greek without transliteration. A good strategy could be to keep to Bywater for a first read, and then use Whalley's idiosyncratic and 'deliberately clumsy' translation while studying his notes. We can even supplement it with the Lucas notes.
The best essay length criticism can be had from Lucas and Else, both of which are referred to often by Whalley. I am planning to read at least one of them soon.
Whalley's comparisons with Coleridge is particularly useful if the reader is interested in learning to think about how Aristotle's percepts can be made to fit modern literary works.
Also his approach is no to treat every word A. uses as a technical term, which is an unfortunate tendency of most academic works. So we usually end up talking very particularly about terms which Aristotle probably wanted to give a wider ambit to. This is when it becomes easy to lapse into thinking that Aristotle is too formalistic and hence dismissing him. That would be poor form for a student.
February 2, 2023
This is very very good. I didn't come close to comprehending the fullness of it, but the first time through means the second will be better.
I was surprised by the Aristotle - it wasn't what I expected although my expectations were perhaps a bit amorphous. The nitty gritty of words and syllables themselves to the structure and plot development was more comprehensive than anticipated.
The essays included at the end were helpful. I particularly enjoyed the Sidney and the Sayers (and was somewhat baffled by Shelley) ... but Sidney's discussion of the historian-philosopher-poet is excellent (if a little challenging, again a second read will be helpful). Sayers' application of the pieces of the Aristotle to detective fiction were insightful and helpful in understanding what had passed before (plus, she's a clear 20th Century writer whose subjects - Holmes, Wimsey, Poirot - were familiar). It helps to understand the Aristotle as a framework or paradigm, not necessarily a set of precepts or hard and fast rules / laws.
I read this book in my "Inspired by The Great Tradition" category of the Schol¨¦ Sisters 5x5 challenge. On to Augustine On Christian Teaching.
2023: The Audiobook was just to help me remember some of what was in the book, but a vastly inferior way of interacting with the text.
I was surprised by the Aristotle - it wasn't what I expected although my expectations were perhaps a bit amorphous. The nitty gritty of words and syllables themselves to the structure and plot development was more comprehensive than anticipated.
The essays included at the end were helpful. I particularly enjoyed the Sidney and the Sayers (and was somewhat baffled by Shelley) ... but Sidney's discussion of the historian-philosopher-poet is excellent (if a little challenging, again a second read will be helpful). Sayers' application of the pieces of the Aristotle to detective fiction were insightful and helpful in understanding what had passed before (plus, she's a clear 20th Century writer whose subjects - Holmes, Wimsey, Poirot - were familiar). It helps to understand the Aristotle as a framework or paradigm, not necessarily a set of precepts or hard and fast rules / laws.
I read this book in my "Inspired by The Great Tradition" category of the Schol¨¦ Sisters 5x5 challenge. On to Augustine On Christian Teaching.
2023: The Audiobook was just to help me remember some of what was in the book, but a vastly inferior way of interacting with the text.
March 7, 2023
Reading Poetics, it very quickly becomes apparent to anyone familiar with narrative structure that this book was highly influential throughout the ages. We continue to dissect narratives exactly as laid out in this book, and I would say that for someone wanting to better understand "the rules" of a proper narrative there is no better place to start than this book. Although Aristotle is dealing mostly with Tragedy and Epic poetry many of these ideas are universal and can be used as a reference to most narrative forms more broadly.
This was my first dive into Aristotle, and I feel that it was a good place to start. It was short and easy to understand. I only wish that I had read more of the works that he is referring to. Especially Sophocles' Oedipus Rex as it is referred to the most often aside from Homer's works.
What I found most intriguing was the differences between Aristotle and Plato on this subject. For Plato, art is an imitation of an imitation (reality the imitation of the world of forms and art the imitation of reality) which removes art more distantly than reality from the truth. Aristotle seems to be saying something quite different in Poetics. That poetry and what we can take to infer more broadly as art in general is a ¡°basic human, and therefore universal, experience.¡± Aristotle claims that poetry "...is a more philosophical and higher thing than history: for poetry tends to express the universal, history the particular.¡± These views contrast most heavily in whether or not we can use art to understand truth. On a moral level, Plato and Aristotle are again in opposition. Plato as evidenced in both The Ion and The Republic adheres to a view that art should be useful and helpful to a society. That distasteful artforms could potentially be harmful to a society by stirring emotions that could be detrimental to the society at large. Whereas Aristotle thinks that the distasteful artforms (those that stir up emotions of hatred, vengeance, lust, etc.) are helpful to a society as a sort of venting mechanism.
This was my first dive into Aristotle, and I feel that it was a good place to start. It was short and easy to understand. I only wish that I had read more of the works that he is referring to. Especially Sophocles' Oedipus Rex as it is referred to the most often aside from Homer's works.
What I found most intriguing was the differences between Aristotle and Plato on this subject. For Plato, art is an imitation of an imitation (reality the imitation of the world of forms and art the imitation of reality) which removes art more distantly than reality from the truth. Aristotle seems to be saying something quite different in Poetics. That poetry and what we can take to infer more broadly as art in general is a ¡°basic human, and therefore universal, experience.¡± Aristotle claims that poetry "...is a more philosophical and higher thing than history: for poetry tends to express the universal, history the particular.¡± These views contrast most heavily in whether or not we can use art to understand truth. On a moral level, Plato and Aristotle are again in opposition. Plato as evidenced in both The Ion and The Republic adheres to a view that art should be useful and helpful to a society. That distasteful artforms could potentially be harmful to a society by stirring emotions that could be detrimental to the society at large. Whereas Aristotle thinks that the distasteful artforms (those that stir up emotions of hatred, vengeance, lust, etc.) are helpful to a society as a sort of venting mechanism.
January 15, 2013
There's something terribly edifying when, having created your own rubric for how books should be judged, you happen to pick up the work from which all literary criticism arose and find that you and Aristotle have independently produced the same system for judgment. I know it probably just trickled down to me through cultural osmosis, but it does give me hope that I'm putting the pieces together properly.
October 5, 2018
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**
????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ? ?????? ??? ???.. ?? ????? ????? ? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ???? ??? ????? ? ?????? ????? ? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????.. ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??? ?? ?? ?? ??? ? ???? ??????? ??? ???? ? ????? ?? ?? ??? ? ???? ?? ??? ??????
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??????? ????? ??? ?? ???????? ? ?????? ???.. ??? ????? ?? ?? ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ?? ???? ????? ???? ?? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ?? ???? ????? ? ?? ???? ?? ?? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ? ??? ????? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ?? ???? ??? ??????
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?????? ????? ?? ??? ??? ?? ??????? ?? ?? ?? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???.. ?? ???? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ????? ? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ???.. ???? ???????? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ? ???? ????? ????? ??? ?? ???????? ????? ?? ?? ?? ????? ????? ??? ? ?? ??? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ?? ????? ?? ????? ???? ??? ? ?? ????? ???? ????? ?? ???? ?? ?? ??? ???? ???? ?? ???? ????
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????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ? ?????? ??? ???.. ?? ????? ????? ? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ???? ??? ????? ? ?????? ????? ? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????.. ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??? ?? ?? ?? ??? ? ???? ??????? ??? ???? ? ????? ?? ?? ??? ? ???? ?? ??? ??????
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January 24, 2021
"Homer has taught the others the proper way of telling lies.... What is convincing though impossible should always be preferred to what is possible and unconvincing."
Aristotle's Poetics caught me completely by surprise. I didn't expect to be confronted with ideas so modern and relatable, nor so heartfelt. I didn't expect Aristotle to basically be a Homer fanboy nor to voice (writing 2300 years ago!) such opinions and complaints as you would easily find in any Å·±¦ÓéÀÖ review. Among the points that he makes, in no particular order:
? It's annoying and aesthetically displeasing when characters go OOC (out of character) and behave inconsistently with themselves.
? Things that work in one mode of storytelling (e.g. epic poetry) don't necessarily work in another (e.g. tragedy), and events can feel tragic or ridiculous according to how they are represented.
? He even argues against fanservice (this one had me like, no way), saying that poets (by which he meant playwrights and composers of epic poetry) who write to satisfy their spectators often end up with weak plots.
? It's a cheap narrative trick to abuse dei ex machina to conveniently resolve an irreparably tangled-up narrative situation.
? All the scenes of the narrative should be useful to the overall goal of the story and consistent with its main focus.
? It's a pity that many authors know how to set up a good plot, but then have no idea how to untangle it.
? Plot twists (which he indicates as anagnorisis and peripateia, revelations and reversals of fortune) should arise naturally from the events that are being told, and the hand of the author should not be too visible--i.e., the plot should not feel forced.
? Which also translates into the fact that the telling should never obfuscate the showing.
I mean, what have we even done these past 2300 years? What are we raging against bad books and poor plots for? Aristotle has already said it all.
NB: Just for the record, I'm not saying that these points are unbreakable rules that must necessarily be respected in all types of narrative, just that contemporary readers, especially when dealing with literature/film/stories in any medium with a view to being entertained, in general sympathize very strongly with these principles.
Aristotle's Poetics caught me completely by surprise. I didn't expect to be confronted with ideas so modern and relatable, nor so heartfelt. I didn't expect Aristotle to basically be a Homer fanboy nor to voice (writing 2300 years ago!) such opinions and complaints as you would easily find in any Å·±¦ÓéÀÖ review. Among the points that he makes, in no particular order:
? It's annoying and aesthetically displeasing when characters go OOC (out of character) and behave inconsistently with themselves.
? Things that work in one mode of storytelling (e.g. epic poetry) don't necessarily work in another (e.g. tragedy), and events can feel tragic or ridiculous according to how they are represented.
? He even argues against fanservice (this one had me like, no way), saying that poets (by which he meant playwrights and composers of epic poetry) who write to satisfy their spectators often end up with weak plots.
? It's a cheap narrative trick to abuse dei ex machina to conveniently resolve an irreparably tangled-up narrative situation.
? All the scenes of the narrative should be useful to the overall goal of the story and consistent with its main focus.
? It's a pity that many authors know how to set up a good plot, but then have no idea how to untangle it.
? Plot twists (which he indicates as anagnorisis and peripateia, revelations and reversals of fortune) should arise naturally from the events that are being told, and the hand of the author should not be too visible--i.e., the plot should not feel forced.
? Which also translates into the fact that the telling should never obfuscate the showing.
I mean, what have we even done these past 2300 years? What are we raging against bad books and poor plots for? Aristotle has already said it all.
NB: Just for the record, I'm not saying that these points are unbreakable rules that must necessarily be respected in all types of narrative, just that contemporary readers, especially when dealing with literature/film/stories in any medium with a view to being entertained, in general sympathize very strongly with these principles.
April 8, 2018
Poetics is the earliest known work of literary criticism. This copy was laid out in lecture note form. Aristotle gives his views on tragedy, the plot, the characters and the content, and then it is compared to epic poetry. Content wise, I think this book is great, but it was just so very boring! I found the parts with the ancient Greek language particularly difficult to read and analyse.
March 29, 2025
???????? ???? ???? ???? ?? ????? ?? ????????? ? ????? ???????? ?? ??????? ????? ??.
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?? ???? ??? ???? ????? ?? ???? "?????" ???? ???? ?? ???? ?? ??? ?? ?????? ?? ?? ??? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ??? ? ??????? ??????????? ???? ??? ???? ?? ???? ??? ?? ???? ?????? ??.
???? ???? ??? ???? ?? ????? ?? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ???????.
????? ??? ?????? ??? ??? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ????.
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?? ???? ??? ???? ????? ?? ???? "?????" ???? ???? ?? ???? ?? ??? ?? ?????? ?? ?? ??? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ??? ? ??????? ??????????? ???? ??? ???? ?? ???? ??? ?? ???? ?????? ??.
???? ???? ??? ???? ?? ????? ?? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ???????.
????? ??? ?????? ??? ??? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ????.
May 5, 2018
Letto analiticamente, prendendo fitti appunti, nell'estate del 2004 (vaghi ricordi di una terrazza non lontana dal mare e altri ricordi che non voglio ricordare), poi riletto continuamente.
Ne derivano sempre suggerimenti e curiosit¨¤.
Come tutti voi sapete, la poesia [oggi leggi: letteratura] ¨¨ pi¨´ filosofica della storia.
Perch¨¦ la storia tratta del vero, la poesia del verosimile. E quindi la poesia si occupa dell¡¯universale, mentre la storia racconta i particolari. Appartiene all¡¯universale il fatto che qualcuno, un personaggio, dica o faccia certe cose secondo verosimiglianza o necessit¨¤, e a questo mira la poesia, aggiungendo successivamente i nomi; appartiene invece al particolare dire cosa ha fatto o cosa ¨¨ capitato ad Alcibiade.
Appunto, siamo lettori, lo sappiamo tutti, anche senza averlo letto in Aristotele.
L'opera del poeta non ¨¨ registrazione di tutto quanto, ma ¨¨ selezione, riadattamento degli eventi, dosaggio sapiente di che cosa scartare e che cosa includere, continuo pensiero di come connettere e come riequilibrare le parti in modo da reinventare il mondo in un ordine pieno di significato.
E l'universale cui mira il poeta pu¨° naturalmente essere qualcosa di molto diverso da ci¨° che poteva avere in mente l'antico filosofo.
Per¨° ¨¨ sempre stupefacente quando il ragionamento di Aristotele diventa vertiginoso: come quando arriva a dire che, alla fin fine, non ¨¨ sempre obbligatorio che lo scrittore inventi con verosimiglianza dei fatti fittizi, pu¨° persino rappresentare fatti realmente avvenuti, basta che siano verosimili: ?niente impedisce infatti che tra i fatti avvenuti ce ne siano alcuni che ¨¨ verosimile avvengano?
E, secondo tale verosimiglianza, ¨¨ il poeta il creatore di questi fatti realmente avvenuti.
Ne derivano sempre suggerimenti e curiosit¨¤.
Come tutti voi sapete, la poesia [oggi leggi: letteratura] ¨¨ pi¨´ filosofica della storia.
Perch¨¦ la storia tratta del vero, la poesia del verosimile. E quindi la poesia si occupa dell¡¯universale, mentre la storia racconta i particolari. Appartiene all¡¯universale il fatto che qualcuno, un personaggio, dica o faccia certe cose secondo verosimiglianza o necessit¨¤, e a questo mira la poesia, aggiungendo successivamente i nomi; appartiene invece al particolare dire cosa ha fatto o cosa ¨¨ capitato ad Alcibiade.
Appunto, siamo lettori, lo sappiamo tutti, anche senza averlo letto in Aristotele.
L'opera del poeta non ¨¨ registrazione di tutto quanto, ma ¨¨ selezione, riadattamento degli eventi, dosaggio sapiente di che cosa scartare e che cosa includere, continuo pensiero di come connettere e come riequilibrare le parti in modo da reinventare il mondo in un ordine pieno di significato.
E l'universale cui mira il poeta pu¨° naturalmente essere qualcosa di molto diverso da ci¨° che poteva avere in mente l'antico filosofo.
Per¨° ¨¨ sempre stupefacente quando il ragionamento di Aristotele diventa vertiginoso: come quando arriva a dire che, alla fin fine, non ¨¨ sempre obbligatorio che lo scrittore inventi con verosimiglianza dei fatti fittizi, pu¨° persino rappresentare fatti realmente avvenuti, basta che siano verosimili: ?niente impedisce infatti che tra i fatti avvenuti ce ne siano alcuni che ¨¨ verosimile avvengano?
E, secondo tale verosimiglianza, ¨¨ il poeta il creatore di questi fatti realmente avvenuti.
February 15, 2016
Introduction
Note on the Texts and Translations
Select Bibliography
A Chronology of Aristotle
Outline of the 'Poetics'
--From Plato, Republic, Books 2, 3, and 10
--Aristotle, Poetics
--From Sir Philip Sidney, An Apology for Poetry
--From P. B. Shelley, A Defence of Poetry
--From D. L. Sayers, 'Aristotle on Detective Fiction'
A Note on Metre
Explanatory Notes
Glossary of Key Terms
Index
Note on the Texts and Translations
Select Bibliography
A Chronology of Aristotle
Outline of the 'Poetics'
--From Plato, Republic, Books 2, 3, and 10
--Aristotle, Poetics
--From Sir Philip Sidney, An Apology for Poetry
--From P. B. Shelley, A Defence of Poetry
--From D. L. Sayers, 'Aristotle on Detective Fiction'
A Note on Metre
Explanatory Notes
Glossary of Key Terms
Index
October 29, 2017
???? ???? ?? ??? ??? ?????? ???? ?? ????? 2 ???? ? ????? ??? ??? ?? ?? ??????????? ????? ????... ?????? ?????!
September 6, 2019
Here is a rudimentary tablet of knowledge by one of the greats. First off, it is somewhat incredible to concede the year that this was written, and that almost 2,400 years later we are still eager to explore poetics that are in this aged article so clearly defined.
Aristotle exalts the poet and holds him in the highest esteem. Similarly, I have come to the conclusion that the novelist of literature is the truest of artists, imitating what he sees and ¡®painting¡¯ things as how they are, telling it as other people tell it and so is said to be, or constructing a world in its most ideal, illustrious state. This is but one of the many core concepts Aristotle pries open. Yes, as readers we have been conscious of the literary elements and the mixture of these comprise contemporary fiction, certainly, but here is a very significant work for the writer and not just the poet.
Always pitting the Epic poem versus the Tragedy, Aristotle maintains that although a Tragedy has all the same elements as an Epic the Epic poem does not always include elements of Tragedy. Here is the contemporary distinction between epic novels (Gone with the Wind, The Thorn Birds) and tragic family dramas (see: Eugene O¡¯Neill, Arthur Miller). But the spirit of drama must flow through both, though the parameters & scales differ.
Indeed some of the dogmas have been explained over and over the years by countless English teachers. So it was a relief to find some of the writer¡¯s personal touches in this informative essay, such as his constant distinction between philosophers and mere men, his fanboy affinity to Homer, his fondness for markedly-clear beginnings & endings, how Epic poetry is the ¡°highest¡± art form (one would imagine that in the modern world Aristotle would have preferred ¡®Titanic¡¯ over ¡®American Beauty¡¯), and that poetry ¡°is a more philosophical and a higher thing than history.¡± (Seemingly rudimentary, this is a must for novelists, even though Epic poems and stage Tragedies are long gone. Sadly the later chapters in Aristotle¡¯s ¡°Poetics¡± are like trips to elementary school English (letters ¨¤words ¨¤sentences). That something from 350 BC is still employed in something so vast and, sometimes if we are lucky, so avant garde as literature is both frightening and encouraging.
Aristotle exalts the poet and holds him in the highest esteem. Similarly, I have come to the conclusion that the novelist of literature is the truest of artists, imitating what he sees and ¡®painting¡¯ things as how they are, telling it as other people tell it and so is said to be, or constructing a world in its most ideal, illustrious state. This is but one of the many core concepts Aristotle pries open. Yes, as readers we have been conscious of the literary elements and the mixture of these comprise contemporary fiction, certainly, but here is a very significant work for the writer and not just the poet.
Always pitting the Epic poem versus the Tragedy, Aristotle maintains that although a Tragedy has all the same elements as an Epic the Epic poem does not always include elements of Tragedy. Here is the contemporary distinction between epic novels (Gone with the Wind, The Thorn Birds) and tragic family dramas (see: Eugene O¡¯Neill, Arthur Miller). But the spirit of drama must flow through both, though the parameters & scales differ.
Indeed some of the dogmas have been explained over and over the years by countless English teachers. So it was a relief to find some of the writer¡¯s personal touches in this informative essay, such as his constant distinction between philosophers and mere men, his fanboy affinity to Homer, his fondness for markedly-clear beginnings & endings, how Epic poetry is the ¡°highest¡± art form (one would imagine that in the modern world Aristotle would have preferred ¡®Titanic¡¯ over ¡®American Beauty¡¯), and that poetry ¡°is a more philosophical and a higher thing than history.¡± (Seemingly rudimentary, this is a must for novelists, even though Epic poems and stage Tragedies are long gone. Sadly the later chapters in Aristotle¡¯s ¡°Poetics¡± are like trips to elementary school English (letters ¨¤words ¨¤sentences). That something from 350 BC is still employed in something so vast and, sometimes if we are lucky, so avant garde as literature is both frightening and encouraging.
April 17, 2022
One of those books which I just flew through because it's thought provoking and refreshing.
Nonfiction nonetheless and not a book for everyone, I would suggest this small book on literary criticism for those who love reading poetry and, most importantly, plays. As the author focused much on the core concept of a poem/play in terms of comedy, tragedy and so forth, I say this book would come handy for those who wants to understand how to write and construct a poem or a play.
Very easy language and very short chapters, a much delightful different read.
Nonfiction nonetheless and not a book for everyone, I would suggest this small book on literary criticism for those who love reading poetry and, most importantly, plays. As the author focused much on the core concept of a poem/play in terms of comedy, tragedy and so forth, I say this book would come handy for those who wants to understand how to write and construct a poem or a play.
Very easy language and very short chapters, a much delightful different read.
August 27, 2020
La Po¨¦tica de Aristoteles sigue siendo a mi entender el primer ensayo literario de la historia y es gracias a ella y al profundo an¨¢lisis que el estagitria griego hace de la ¨¦pica, la tragedia y la epopeya que conocemos la literatura moderna y de la cual se desprende toda concepci¨®n de la literatura hoy en d¨ªa.
December 2, 2022
read this for school! and i¡¯m not smart enough to understand any of this!!
December 16, 2018
It is truly astounding, humbling, and semi-surreal to think that after so many years, the continuously strolling and pondering Greek philosopher, Aristotle, is vital and relevant, hundreds of thousands of days after his passing.
To any who claim social progress and technology has changed the world, well I am not so sure.
It appears, time and again, all who we were, are, and will continue to be, is exponentially less significant than we may think.
And it is a wonderful book for playwrights and poets and writers to learn from, even today.
Startling. Instructive. Banal.
Human (even Aristotle).
To any who claim social progress and technology has changed the world, well I am not so sure.
It appears, time and again, all who we were, are, and will continue to be, is exponentially less significant than we may think.
And it is a wonderful book for playwrights and poets and writers to learn from, even today.
Startling. Instructive. Banal.
Human (even Aristotle).
June 2, 2023
As¨ª es. De aqu¨ª sale la tan mencionada estructura aristot¨¦lica (la base de la narrativa y la dramaturgia). Lo que hoy nos parecer¨ªa una obviedad, para el tiempo en el que Arist¨®teles lo descubre (porque s¨ª, en aquellos a?os, m¨¢s de 300 a.C., las cosas se descubr¨ªan) era una novedad. Arist¨®teles analiza el origen de la estructura de la narraci¨®n, desde el arte po¨¦tico, que en ese tiempo se trataba de la epopeya (la ¨¦pica), la comedia y la tragedia, y descubre el sistema a trav¨¦s del cual se ordena este arte, que seg¨²n Arist¨®teles, es el arte de la imitaci¨®n. Pero de la imitaci¨®n de la realidad que busca ir m¨¢s all¨¢ de la realidad, es decir, mejorarla y dotarle de una coherencia que normalmente no tiene. Y esto es lo que m¨¢s me ha llamado la atenci¨®n de La po¨¦tica; Arist¨®teles afirma que la realidad suele tener hechos que no se corresponden unos con otros, por lo que carecen en s¨ª mismos de verosimilitud, y que la poes¨ªa (y el poeta) en el caso de la ¨¦pica, o el dramaturgo, en el caso de la tragedia y la comedia, son los encargados de dotarle de esa verosimilitud a los hechos narrados.
En ese tiempo no exist¨ªa el concepto de la ficci¨®n como tal, ni siquiera de la literatura, pero Arist¨®teles ya los establece al marcar la idea de que la imitaci¨®n y el suceso de los hechos narrados deben ser creados de tal manera que suenen coherentes y veros¨ªmiles aunque no se correspondan con la realidad. As¨ª, tambi¨¦n determina al estilo y al artificio po¨¦tico y ling¨¹¨ªstico como uno de los elementos que ayudan a dotar de coherencia a la ficci¨®n/imitaci¨®n. Todo lo que hoy a¨²n seguimos discutiendo sobre el texto literario (que si pesa m¨¢s el fondo o la forma, que si el estilo prima sobre la historia, que si no hay trabajo del lenguaje no es literatura, etc.) Arist¨®teles ya lo dej¨® sentado tres siglos antes de Cristo: hasta lo m¨¢s disparatado e inveros¨ªmil puede tornarse veros¨ªmil si hay arte en el poeta, la pluma del escritor lo puede todo, es decir, el artificio. Sin embargo, tambi¨¦n establece que sin acci¨®n no hay tragedia y que finalmente todo retrato es un retrato de la acci¨®n. As¨ª, cita como mayor exponente de este nivel de perfecci¨®n narrativa a Homero, con lo que todo el an¨¢lisis que hace de la po¨¦tica ser¨ªa una especie de advenimiento de la ficci¨®n narrativa y, con ello, de la novela (no de la prosa en s¨ª como estructura del lenguaje, ya que la epopeya es poes¨ªa con reglas estrictas, pero s¨ª de lo que subyace al esquema po¨¦tico). Incluso discute a la cr¨ªtica generalizada de que la tragedia (griega) era un arte menor; Arist¨®teles se?ala que puede ser tan trascendente como la epopeya.
Cabe aclarar que para una mejor comprensi¨®n de este texto es preferible tener alg¨²n conocimiento o haber le¨ªdo algo de S¨®focles, Eur¨ªpides y Homero, pues aunque cita a otros autores, la mayor¨ªa de ejemplos que da son de estos tres. Respecto a los tres famosos actos del drama -que en realidad no los nombra como actos- estos son literalmente: el principio, el enlace y el desenlace. De ah¨ª sale todo lo que conocemos hoy en d¨ªa como estructura narrativa, pues toda intenci¨®n rupturista o vanguardista ha tenido siempre la intenci¨®n de trastocar esa esta estructura, pero siempre nace de ella. Arist¨®teles incluso va m¨¢s all¨¢ y sienta algunos conceptos, entre ellos lo que yo interpretar¨ªa como elipsis: aquello que en la narraci¨®n no se cuenta, pero se supone que ha ocurrido fuera de ella.
Acerca de los personajes sobre los que acaece la tragedia, seg¨²n Arist¨®teles no deben ser ni demasiado virtuosos que caigan en mala fortuna -pues eso en vez de l¨¢stima causar¨ªa indignaci¨®n- ni demasiado perversos que tienen buena fortuna, porque seg¨²n ¨¦l, no cumplir¨ªa con los requisitos de la tragedia: que sea humano, lastimoso o terrible. El protagonista perfecto ser¨ªa aquel que no es aventajado en virtud ni malicia sino que cae en desgracia por un yerro disculpable. Tambi¨¦n establece la anagn¨®risis (el reconocimiento entre s¨ª de los personajes) como base de la tragedia (por ejemplo, Edipo reconociendo que se cas¨® con su madre y mat¨® a su padre).
Por otro lado, hace varias relaciones seg¨²n la l¨®gica de la narrativa po¨¦tica de la ¨¦poca, como que la tragedia no puede basarse en que un enemigo a mate o da?e a otro enemigo, pues aquello no causa l¨¢stima, ni que un neutral da?e a un similar, sino que la tragedia surge cuando las atrocidades se cometen entre personas amigas (familiares, por ejemplo) de forma consciente o inconsciente, aunque seg¨²n Arist¨®teles, es mejor que el da?o sea hecho, porque si la persona es consciente del da?o antes de hacerlo y se frena, entonces ya ser¨ªa una acci¨®n m¨¢s perversa y menos tr¨¢gica, ya que nadie padecer¨ªa (esto para fines dram¨¢ticos).
Tambi¨¦n es interesante el que establezca que el arte de la imitaci¨®n (la po¨¦tica) no es lo que es, sino lo que debe ser. Es decir, la ficci¨®n es una realidad mejorada y coherente. Sobre la representaci¨®n (teatral), a la que nombra como "perspectiva", se?ala que es una de las partes de la tragedia, las otras son la melod¨ªa y la dicci¨®n. Respecto a la acci¨®n, que se estructura en el orden de los sucesos, la llama "f¨¢bula". La f¨¢bula es "un remedio de la acci¨®n". Este es quiz¨¢s otro concepto an¨¢logo a la ficci¨®n.
Sobre la comedia (griega) dice que es un retrato de los peores, pero no por sus vicios, sino por algo vergonzoso que sea risible. Concluye que seg¨²n esta l¨®gica, en el arte de la imitaci¨®n hay que imitar a los mejores (¨¦pica) o a los peores (comedia), aunque tambi¨¦n los hay que imitan a los iguales. No obstante, considera que en esta imitaci¨®n debe haber la voluntad de embellecimiento, a¨²n, parad¨®jicamente, en la vileza de un personaje.
En resumen, lo principal: la f¨¢bula, que es el retrato de la acci¨®n (pero no es la acci¨®n como tal); dentro de la f¨¢bula, las peripecias (cambio de la acci¨®n por imprevistos) y la anagn¨®risis (reconocimiento entre personajes). Luego, las costumbres que determinan el car¨¢cter de los personajes. Y por ¨²ltimo, el dictamen, que para Arist¨®teles es "la expresi¨®n del pensamiento por medio de las palabras", lo cual se podr¨ªa entender respecto a los di¨¢logos o mon¨®logos interiores. Y por ¨²ltimo, la melod¨ªa, que ser¨ªa respecto al ritmo y la cadencia de las palabras. Sobre la perspectiva (en la tragedia) que vendr¨ªa a ser la puesta en escena, refiere que es menos propia de la po¨¦tica y "m¨¢s bien arte del maquinista, que no de los poetas". Poeta enti¨¦ndase como escritor. Y es que el teatro griego estaba lleno de m¨¢quinas que mov¨ªan escenograf¨ªa y personajes, no en vano el c¨¦lebre "Deus ex machina" (dios baja de la m¨¢quina), que si bien no lo nombra como tal en este tratado, s¨ª habla indirectamente de aquello, ya que dice que es justificable que las deidades intervengan en la tragedia, aunque s¨ª cr¨ªtica la gratuidad para resolver la trama. Para Arist¨®teles, todo ya debe estar resuelto por la coherencia y verosimilitud del texto (gracias al genio del poeta) y menos por el artificio de la representaci¨®n.
En ese tiempo no exist¨ªa el concepto de la ficci¨®n como tal, ni siquiera de la literatura, pero Arist¨®teles ya los establece al marcar la idea de que la imitaci¨®n y el suceso de los hechos narrados deben ser creados de tal manera que suenen coherentes y veros¨ªmiles aunque no se correspondan con la realidad. As¨ª, tambi¨¦n determina al estilo y al artificio po¨¦tico y ling¨¹¨ªstico como uno de los elementos que ayudan a dotar de coherencia a la ficci¨®n/imitaci¨®n. Todo lo que hoy a¨²n seguimos discutiendo sobre el texto literario (que si pesa m¨¢s el fondo o la forma, que si el estilo prima sobre la historia, que si no hay trabajo del lenguaje no es literatura, etc.) Arist¨®teles ya lo dej¨® sentado tres siglos antes de Cristo: hasta lo m¨¢s disparatado e inveros¨ªmil puede tornarse veros¨ªmil si hay arte en el poeta, la pluma del escritor lo puede todo, es decir, el artificio. Sin embargo, tambi¨¦n establece que sin acci¨®n no hay tragedia y que finalmente todo retrato es un retrato de la acci¨®n. As¨ª, cita como mayor exponente de este nivel de perfecci¨®n narrativa a Homero, con lo que todo el an¨¢lisis que hace de la po¨¦tica ser¨ªa una especie de advenimiento de la ficci¨®n narrativa y, con ello, de la novela (no de la prosa en s¨ª como estructura del lenguaje, ya que la epopeya es poes¨ªa con reglas estrictas, pero s¨ª de lo que subyace al esquema po¨¦tico). Incluso discute a la cr¨ªtica generalizada de que la tragedia (griega) era un arte menor; Arist¨®teles se?ala que puede ser tan trascendente como la epopeya.
Cabe aclarar que para una mejor comprensi¨®n de este texto es preferible tener alg¨²n conocimiento o haber le¨ªdo algo de S¨®focles, Eur¨ªpides y Homero, pues aunque cita a otros autores, la mayor¨ªa de ejemplos que da son de estos tres. Respecto a los tres famosos actos del drama -que en realidad no los nombra como actos- estos son literalmente: el principio, el enlace y el desenlace. De ah¨ª sale todo lo que conocemos hoy en d¨ªa como estructura narrativa, pues toda intenci¨®n rupturista o vanguardista ha tenido siempre la intenci¨®n de trastocar esa esta estructura, pero siempre nace de ella. Arist¨®teles incluso va m¨¢s all¨¢ y sienta algunos conceptos, entre ellos lo que yo interpretar¨ªa como elipsis: aquello que en la narraci¨®n no se cuenta, pero se supone que ha ocurrido fuera de ella.
Acerca de los personajes sobre los que acaece la tragedia, seg¨²n Arist¨®teles no deben ser ni demasiado virtuosos que caigan en mala fortuna -pues eso en vez de l¨¢stima causar¨ªa indignaci¨®n- ni demasiado perversos que tienen buena fortuna, porque seg¨²n ¨¦l, no cumplir¨ªa con los requisitos de la tragedia: que sea humano, lastimoso o terrible. El protagonista perfecto ser¨ªa aquel que no es aventajado en virtud ni malicia sino que cae en desgracia por un yerro disculpable. Tambi¨¦n establece la anagn¨®risis (el reconocimiento entre s¨ª de los personajes) como base de la tragedia (por ejemplo, Edipo reconociendo que se cas¨® con su madre y mat¨® a su padre).
Por otro lado, hace varias relaciones seg¨²n la l¨®gica de la narrativa po¨¦tica de la ¨¦poca, como que la tragedia no puede basarse en que un enemigo a mate o da?e a otro enemigo, pues aquello no causa l¨¢stima, ni que un neutral da?e a un similar, sino que la tragedia surge cuando las atrocidades se cometen entre personas amigas (familiares, por ejemplo) de forma consciente o inconsciente, aunque seg¨²n Arist¨®teles, es mejor que el da?o sea hecho, porque si la persona es consciente del da?o antes de hacerlo y se frena, entonces ya ser¨ªa una acci¨®n m¨¢s perversa y menos tr¨¢gica, ya que nadie padecer¨ªa (esto para fines dram¨¢ticos).
Tambi¨¦n es interesante el que establezca que el arte de la imitaci¨®n (la po¨¦tica) no es lo que es, sino lo que debe ser. Es decir, la ficci¨®n es una realidad mejorada y coherente. Sobre la representaci¨®n (teatral), a la que nombra como "perspectiva", se?ala que es una de las partes de la tragedia, las otras son la melod¨ªa y la dicci¨®n. Respecto a la acci¨®n, que se estructura en el orden de los sucesos, la llama "f¨¢bula". La f¨¢bula es "un remedio de la acci¨®n". Este es quiz¨¢s otro concepto an¨¢logo a la ficci¨®n.
Sobre la comedia (griega) dice que es un retrato de los peores, pero no por sus vicios, sino por algo vergonzoso que sea risible. Concluye que seg¨²n esta l¨®gica, en el arte de la imitaci¨®n hay que imitar a los mejores (¨¦pica) o a los peores (comedia), aunque tambi¨¦n los hay que imitan a los iguales. No obstante, considera que en esta imitaci¨®n debe haber la voluntad de embellecimiento, a¨²n, parad¨®jicamente, en la vileza de un personaje.
En resumen, lo principal: la f¨¢bula, que es el retrato de la acci¨®n (pero no es la acci¨®n como tal); dentro de la f¨¢bula, las peripecias (cambio de la acci¨®n por imprevistos) y la anagn¨®risis (reconocimiento entre personajes). Luego, las costumbres que determinan el car¨¢cter de los personajes. Y por ¨²ltimo, el dictamen, que para Arist¨®teles es "la expresi¨®n del pensamiento por medio de las palabras", lo cual se podr¨ªa entender respecto a los di¨¢logos o mon¨®logos interiores. Y por ¨²ltimo, la melod¨ªa, que ser¨ªa respecto al ritmo y la cadencia de las palabras. Sobre la perspectiva (en la tragedia) que vendr¨ªa a ser la puesta en escena, refiere que es menos propia de la po¨¦tica y "m¨¢s bien arte del maquinista, que no de los poetas". Poeta enti¨¦ndase como escritor. Y es que el teatro griego estaba lleno de m¨¢quinas que mov¨ªan escenograf¨ªa y personajes, no en vano el c¨¦lebre "Deus ex machina" (dios baja de la m¨¢quina), que si bien no lo nombra como tal en este tratado, s¨ª habla indirectamente de aquello, ya que dice que es justificable que las deidades intervengan en la tragedia, aunque s¨ª cr¨ªtica la gratuidad para resolver la trama. Para Arist¨®teles, todo ya debe estar resuelto por la coherencia y verosimilitud del texto (gracias al genio del poeta) y menos por el artificio de la representaci¨®n.
March 15, 2025
can¡¯t wait to meet aristotle in hell just so i can fight him
January 2, 2017
???? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ??????? ??? ?? ????????? ????? ???? ?? ???. ??? ????????? ?? ??????? ????? ???? ?? ???? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ????. ?? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ???. ????? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ???? ???????? ?? ??? ???? ???? ????? ? ???? ????? ?? ????? ???? ???????? (??????) ?? ??? ???? ???? ???? ?? ????? ???? ???????? ????? ???: ???? ?????? ?? ??? ? ??????? ?? ????
???? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ????? ???? ?????: ???? ? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ??? ????? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ??????? ???. ?????? ?? ?? ??? ??? ?????? ????. ???? ??? ??? ????? ??? ?? ?? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ?????? ? ????????? ?????? ? ??????? ????? ?? ??? ????? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ???. ??? ?? ??? ???? ????????? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ?? ??????? ????? ???? ??? ??? ????? ? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? ???. ??????? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ??? ????? ????????? ??????? ???. ????? ?????? ??? ????? ? ???????? ?????? ???? ? ???? ???? ?? ? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ??????? ????? ??? ?? ????? ??? ???? ????? ?????. ????? ????? ????? ?????? ???????? ?? ?? ?? ????? ???? ???? ???? ? ?? ?? ??? ?? ????? ????? ???? ? ???? ????? ?????
??? ??? ????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ?? ?? ???? ?????? ? ?? ???? ?? ?? ??? ???: ????? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? (?? ???? ????? ??? ????? ?? ??? ???? ?????)? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ???? ?????? ? ????? ? ????? ????????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ???
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