欧宝娱乐

孬賲 丕賳馗乇 廿賱賶 毓丕賱賲 丕賱鬲賰賵賷賳 賰賷賮 丕亘鬲丿兀 賲賳 丕賱賲毓丕丿賳 孬賲 丕賱賳亘丕鬲 孬賲 丕賱丨賷賵丕賳 毓賱賶 賴賷卅丞 亘丿賷毓丞 賲賳 丕賱鬲丿乇賷噩. 丌禺乇 兀賮賯 丕賱賲毓丕丿賳 賲鬲氐賱 亘兀賵賱 兀賮賯 丕賱賳亘丕鬲 賲孬賱 丕賱丨卮丕卅卮貙 賵賲丕 賱丕 亘匕乇 賱賴貙 賵丌禺乇 兀賮賯 丕賱賳亘丕鬲 賲孬賱 丕賱賳禺賱 賵丕賱賰乇賲 賲鬲氐賱 亘兀賵賱 兀賮賯 丕賱丨賷賵丕賳 賲孬賱 丕賱丨賱夭賵賳 賵丕賱氐丿賮貙 賵賱賲 賷賵噩丿 賱賴賲丕 廿賱丕 賯賵丞 丕賱賱賲爻 賮賯胤 賵賲毓賳賶 丕賱丕鬲氐丕賱 賮賷 賴匕賴 丕賱賲賰賵賳丕鬲 兀賳 丌禺乇 兀賮賯 賲賳賴丕 賲爻鬲毓丿 亘丕賱丕爻鬲毓丿丕丿 丕賱睾乇賷亘 賱兀賳 賷氐賷乇 兀賵賱 兀賮賯 丕賱匕賷 亘毓丿賴. 賵丕鬲爻毓 毓丕賱賲 丕賱丨賷賵丕賳 賵鬲毓丿丿鬲 兀賳賵丕毓賴貙 賵丕賳鬲賴賶 賮賷 鬲丿乇賷噩 丕賱鬲賰賵賷賳 廿賱賶 丕賱丕賳爻丕賳 氐丕丨亘 丕賱賮賰乇 賵丕賱乇賵賷丞貙 鬲乇鬲賮毓 廿賱賷賴 賲賳 毓丕賱賲 丕賱賯丿乇丞 丕賱匕賷 丕噩鬲賲毓 賮賷賴 丕賱丨爻 賵丕賱廿丿乇丕賰貙 賵賱賲 賷賳鬲賴 廿賱賶 丕賱乇賵賷丞 賵丕賱賮賰乇 亘丕賱賮毓賱貙 賵賰丕賳 匕賱賰 兀賵賱 兀賮賯 賲賳 丕賱廿賳爻丕賳 亘毓丿賴. 賵賴匕丕 睾丕賷丞 卮賴賵丿賳丕

Melvyn Bragg and guests Robert Hoyland, Robert Irwin, and Hugh Kennedy discuss the life and ideas of the 14th-century Arab philosopher of history Ibn Khaldun.

Ibn Khaldun was a North African statesman who retreated into the desert in 1375. He emerged having written one of the most important ever studies of the workings of history.

Khaldun was born in Tunis in 1332. He received a supremely good education, but at 16 lost many of his family to the Black Death. His adult life was similarly characterized by sharp turns of fortune. He built a career as a political operator in cities from Fez to Granada. But he often fared badly in court intrigues, was imprisoned and failed to prevent the murder of a fellow statesman.

In 1375, he withdrew into the Sahara to work out why the Muslim world had degenerated into division and decline. Four years later, he had completed not only a history of North African politics but also, in the book's long introduction, one of the great studies of history.

Drawing on both regional history and personal experience, he set out a bleak analysis of the rise and fall of dynasties. He argued that group solidarity was vital to success in power. Within five generations, though, this always decayed. Tired urban dynasties inevitably became vulnerable to overthrow by rural insurgents.

Later in life, Ibn Khaldun worked as a judge in Egypt, and in 1401 he met the terrifying Mongol conqueror Tamburlaine, whose triumphs, Ibn Khaldun felt, bore out his pessimistic theories.

Over the last three centuries, Ibn Khaldun has been rediscovered as a profoundly prescient political scientist, philosopher of history and forerunner of sociology -- one of the great thinkers of the Muslim world.

Robert Hoyland is Professor of Islamic History at the University of Oxford; Robert Irwin is Senior Research Associate of the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London; Hugh Kennedy is Professor of Arabic in the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London.